22. NFPA 1710, 2020 Edition TIG with Structural Response Guide.pdf

Air Force Fire & Emergency Services Technical Implementation Guide 1710-20

Technical Implementation Guide 1710-20 For

NFPA 1710, Standard for Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the

Public by Career Fire Departments

Date Published: August 2021

Preface

In accordance with DODI 6055.06, Section 6.1. and AFI 32-2001, para. 1.1.1, the AF/A4C is designated as the authority having jurisdiction for Air Force Fire & Emergency Services policy and guidance. AFCEC/CXF conducted a comprehensive line item review of NFPA 1710, Standard for Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Career Fire Departments (2020 Edition). This Technical Implementation Guide (TIG) provides clarification and deviation approvals authorized by the Authority Having Jurisdiction, The Air Force Civil Engineer. Line items not addressed in this TIG are implemented as written. This TIG does not apply for use during contingency, humanitarian relief, or wartime operations. Consult War Mobilizations Plan (WMP) 1, Annex S, for staffing and vehicle requirements.

The left hand column lists the NFPA line items which correspond to a clarification or deviation on the right hand column.

All Air Force Installation and Mission Support Center Detachment Fire and Emergency Services representatives have coordinated on this TIG. Correspondence in this regard is on file at AFCEC/CXF, Tyndall AFB FL.

WILLIAM H. KALE III

Brigadier General, USAF Director of Civil Engineers

Attachment:

A4C Interim NFPA Standards Implementation Memo

KALE.WILLIAM.HE

NRY.1048333504

Digitally signed by

KALE.WILLIAM.HENRY.1048333

Date: 2021.08.23 18:58:20 -04'00'

NFPA 1710, 2020 Edition Air Force Implementation Matrix Chapter 1 – Administration Adopt as written with the following clarifications.

1.1* Scope. This Technical Implementation Guide (TIG) provides Air Force clarifications or deviations to National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standard 1710, Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Career Fire Departments (2020 Edition).

2.3.2 Other Publications. Clarification: Added the following references:

2.3.2.1 Department of Defense Instruction (DoDI) 6055.06

Fire and Emergency Services Program

2.3.2.2 Air Force Instruction (AFI) 32-2001, The Fire and

Emergency Services Program

2.3.2.3 Allowance Source Code (ASC) 010, Vehicle Fleet

(Registered) All MAJCOM Common

2.3.2.4 Air Force Manpower Standard, Fire Emergency Services

Flight 44F1

2.3.2.5 ANGMS 44F1

2.3.2.6 Applicable Air Force Technical Orders

2.3.2.7 USAF Fire Emergency Services Vehicle Validation and

Realignment Plan (VVRP)

2.3.2.8 Air Force Fire Emergency Services Structural Response Guide

3.2.2* Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ).

Clarification: The Director of Civil Engineers is the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) for Air Force FES clarification and deviations.

3.3.2.1* Automatic Aid. Clarification: Automatic Aid as defined in DoDI 6055.06

3.3.2.2 Mutual Aid. Clarification: Mutual Aid as defined in DoDI 6055.06 3.3.4* Aircraft Rescue and Fire-Fighting (ARFF) Vehicle.

Clarification: FES Vehicle Validation and Realignment Plan authorizes the 500-gallon P-34 Rapid Intervention Vehicle as a suitable supplement to the ARFF apparatus fleet.

3.3.64.1 Alarm Answering

Time.

Clarification: Component of Dispatch Time defined in DoDI 6055.06

3.3.64.2 Alarm

Handling Time.

Clarification: Component of Dispatch Time defined in DoDI

6055.06. Alarm Handling Time and Dispatch Time differ in their criteria. Where NFPA’s “Alarm Handling Time” ends at the beginning of the transmittal of response information to responders, DoDI 6055.06’s “Dispatch Time” ends after the dispatch information is transmitted and applicable units are notified.

3.3.64.3 Alarm

Processing Time.

Clarification: Component of Dispatch Time defined in DoDI 6055.06

3.3.64.4 Alarm

Transfer Time.

Clarification: Component of Dispatch Time defined in DoDI 6055.06

3.3.64.6* Total Response Time.

Clarification: Aggregate Response Time as defined by DoDI 6055.06.

4.1 Fire Department

Organizational Statement.

Clarification: Revise organizational statement IAW with NFPA 1710 as required. The Fire Department's organizational statement is governed under NFPA 1500, AFPD 32-20, and AFI 32-2001.

4.1.2* Clarification: Response Times and Levels of Service for FES Operations are outlined in DoDI 6055.06 and AFI 32-2001.

4.1.2.1. (1-8) Clarification: Aggregate Response Time as defined by DoDI 6055.06.

4.1.2.3.1 Clarification: Aggregate Response Time as defined by DoDI 6055.06.

4.1.2.3.3 Clarification: Aggregate Response Time as defined by DoDI 6055.06.

4.1.2.3.3.1 Clarification: Aggregate Response Time as defined by DoDI 6055.06.

4.1.2.4 Clarification: Aggregate Response Time as defined by DoDI 6055.06.

4.3 Emergency Medical

Services.

Clarification: This covers all areas in NFPA 1710 relating to EMS provided to the base population by AF Fire and Emergency Services organizations. The AHJ for EMS is the Air Force Surgeon General and the installation senior medical officer regardless of who provides the service.

4.8.1* Clarification: Agreements shall be IAW AFI 32-2001, DoDI

6055.06 and AFI 10-801.

5.2.1.1 Clarification: Air Force staffing requirements for emergency response incidents are IAW DoDI 6055.06, AFI 32-2001 and AFMS 44F1. Vehicle authorizations are identified in ASC 010.

Equipment authorizations are identified in ASC 490.

5.2.2* Clarification: Air Force suppression capability is based on historical risk profiles staffing requirements and response criteria for emergency response incidents are IAW DoDI 6055.06, AFI 32-2001, AFMS 44F1 and Structural Response Guide.

5.2.2.2.1* Clarification: Levels of Service as defined in DoDI 6055.06, AFI 32-2001 and AFMS 44F1.

5.2.2.2.5* Clarification: Levels of Service as defined in DoDI 6055.06, AFI 32-2001 and AFMS 44F1.

5.2.3 Clarification: Levels of Service as defined in DoDI 6055.06, AFI 32-2001 and AFMS 44F1.

5.2.3.1.1 and 5.2.3.1.2 Clarification: Levels of Service as defined in DoDI 6055.06, AFI 32-2001 and AFMS 44F1.

5.2.3.1.2.1 Clarification: Levels of Service as defined in DoDI 6055.06, AFI 32-2001 and AFMS 44F1.

5.2.3.2.1 and 5.2.3.2.2 Clarification: Levels of Service as defined in DoDI 6055.06, AFI 32-2001 and AFMS 44F1.

5.2.3.2.2.1 Clarification: Levels of Service as defined in

DoDI 6055.06, AFI 32-2001 and AFMS 44F1.

5.2.3.3.2 Clarification: Levels of Service as defined in

5.2.3.4.1 and 5.2.3.4.2

Clarification: Levels of Service as defined in

5.2.3.5.2 Clarification: Levels of Service as defined in DoDI 6055.06, AFI 32-2001 and AFMS 44F1.

5.2.4.1.1* (1-9)

Deviation: IAW AFMS 44F1, AF FES organizations are not allocated manpower to internally achieve single-family dwelling capability on initial full alarm assignments. AF installation design criteria and public education reduces the potential for catastrophic incidents as indicated by historical response data. Incident commanders allocate resources to manage incidents based on local risk factors. Installations with this requirement should consider developing automatic aid procedures with local jurisdictions to supplement manpower allocated by AFMS 44F1.

5.2.4.2.1* (1-10) Deviation: IAW AFMS 44F1, AF FES organizations are not allocated manpower to internally achieve open-air strip shopping center capability on initial full alarm assignments. AF installation design criteria and public education reduces the potential for catastrophic incidents as indicated by historical response data. Incident commanders allocate resources to manage incidents based on local risk factors. Installations with this requirement should consider developing automatic aid procedures with local jurisdictions to supplement manpower allocated by AFMS 44F1.

5.2.4.3.1 (1-10) Deviation: IAW AFMS 44F1, AF FES organizations are not allocated manpower to internally achieve three-story garden style apartment capability on initial full alarm assignments. AF installation design criteria and public education reduces the potential for catastrophic incidents as indicated by historical response data. Incident commanders allocate resources to manage incidents based on local risk factors. Installations with this requirement should consider developing automatic aid procedures with local jurisdictions to supplement manpower allocated by AFMS 44F1.

5.2.4.4.1 (1-19) Deviation: IAW AFMS 44F1, AF FES organizations are not allocated manpower to internally achieve high-rise capability on initial full alarm assignments. AF installation design criteria and public education reduces the potential for catastrophic incidents as indicated by historical response data. Incident commanders allocate resources to manage incidents based on local risk factors. Installations with this requirement should consider developing automatic aid procedures with local jurisdictions to supplement manpower allocated by AFMS 44F1.

5.3* – 5.3.4.4 Clarification: FES roles in EMS are determined through Memorandum of Agreement and approved by the Air Force Surgeon General.

5.5.2 Clarification: Levels of Service as defined in DoDI 6055.06, AFI 32-2001 and AFMS 44F1.

5.5.4.3 and 5.5.4.4 Clarification: Levels of Service and Aggregate Response Time requirements as defined in DoDI 6055.06 and AFI 32-2001.

5.5.5.1 and 5.5.5.2 Clarification: ARFF Levels of Service defined in IAW DoDI 6055.06, AFI 32-2001 and AFMS 44F1.

5.5.5.3 Clarification: EMS Levels of Service defined in IAW DoDI

6055.06 and AFI 32-2001.

5.7.1.2 Clarification: Capabilities and roles must be determined IAW AFMAN 32-7003 and the Installation Wildland Fire Management Plan. Training and certification will be accomplished IAW NWCG requirements.

5.7.3.2 Clarification: Levels of Service as defined in DoDI 6055.06, AFI 32-2001 and AFMS 44F1.

5.7.5.1 and 5.7.5.2 Clarification: Levels of Service and Aggregate Response Time requirements as defined in DoDI 6055.06 and AFI 32-2001.

6.3.2 Clarification: Competencies, local risks and effectiveness of response forces are analyzed and reported through the Fire Emergency Services Self-Assessment Program (FESAP) IAW

AFI 32-2001.

AIR FORCE

FIRE & EMERGENCY SERVICES

STRUCTURAL RESPONSE GUIDE

October 2021

Air Force Fire & Emergency Services Structural Response Guide 1710-20

Table of Contents

SECTION 1 – INTRODUCTION

1.1. Purpose

1.2. Background

1.3. Discussion

1.4. Definitions

SECTION 2 – FIRE DEVELOPMENT IN STRUCTURES

2.1. Fire Development in Compartments

2.2. Standard Time-Temperature Curve

2.3. Flashover and Factors Influencing Flashover

2.4. Flashover in Differing Occupancies

2.5. Flashover in Dwellings

SECTION 3 – FIRE RESPONSE DISTRICTS AND FIRE DEMAND ZONES

3.1. Fire Response Districts (FRDs)

3.2. Sample Fire Response Districts

3.3. Fire Demand Zones (FDZ)

3.4. Factors Influencing FDZs

3.5. Sample Fire Demand Zones

SECTION 4 – AGGREGATE RESPONSE TIME

4.1. Response Objectives

4.2. Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ)

4.3. Air Force AHJ

4.4. Aggregate Response Time (ART)

4.5. Optimum Level of Service Response Criteria

4.6. Fire Stations in Main Base Cantonment Areas

4.7. Remote or Outlying Facilities

SECTION 5 – CAPABILITIES

5.1 Staffing and Manpower Criteria

5.2 Fire Vehicle Criteria

5.3 Relationship of Staffing and Vehicles to Standards of Cover (SOC)

5.4 Emergency Response Capability (ERC)

5.5 Levels of Service

5.6 General Rules of Engagement

Figures

Figure 1 Standard Time and Temperature Curve Figure 2 Time to Flashover in Various Occupancies Figure 3 Sample Fire Response Districts Figure 4 Sample Fire Demand Zones Figure 5 Cascade of Events Comparison Figure 6 Elements of Response Time

Tables Table 1 Occupancy Classification Definitions for Unsprinklered Facilities Table 2 Structural Fire Service Delivery Comparison Table 3 ARTs for Remote or Outlying Facilities Table 4 Fireground Tasks and OLS Staffing

Supersedes: This edition of the Air Force Fire and Emergency Services Structural Response Guide supersedes all previous editions.

SECTION 1 – INTRODUCTION

1.1. Purpose. The purpose of this guide is to integrate Air Force (AF) and Department of Defense (DoD) requirements relative to structural firefighting operations and further educate our career field.

This guide provides a template for base-level senior fire officials (SFOs) in the Fire and Emergency Services (F&ES) Flight to use when conducting assessments and to communicate fire protection capabilities to their Base Civil Engineer (BCE) and Wing leaders. It provides a foundation to senior leaders to aid in assessing fire risk.

1.2. Background. DoD requirements for structural firefighting operations are contained in DoDI 6055.06, Department of Defense Fire and Emergency Services Program. This instruction recognizes both mandatory standards, such as those promulgated by the Department of Labor’s Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and non-mandatory consensus standards such as National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards. NFPA 1710, Standard for the Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Career Fire Departments, is a consensus standard pertaining to structural firefighting operations. The International City Management Association (ICMA) publishes a third category of relevant standards known as industry standards.

1.2.1. The AF has issued the following standards to implement DoDI 6055.06; AF Instruction 32- 2001, Fire and Emergency Services Program; AF Technical Implementation Guide (TIG) 1710;

Allowance Source Code (ASC) 010, Vehicle Fleet (Registered) All MAJCOM Common; and Air Force Manpower Standard (AFMS) 44F1, Fire Emergency Services Flight.

1.3. Discussion. A thorough understanding of structural response criteria enable SFOs to allocate available resources and to provide senior leaders accurate assessments relative to structural firefighting capabilities and risks.

1.4. Definitions.

1.4.1. Aggregate Response Times (ART), IAW DoDI 6055.06.

1.4.1.1. Dispatch Time: The point or receipt of the emergency alarm at the public safety answering point to the point where sufficient information is known to the dispatcher and applicable units are notified of the emergency.

1.4.1.2. Turnout Time: The time beginning when units are notified of the emergency to the beginning point of travel.

1.4.1.3. Travel Time: The time that begins when units are enroute to the emergency incident and ends when units arrive at the scene.

1.4.1.4. First Arriving Company: One company arriving within 7 minutes ART 90% of the time with a staff of four firefighters. Fractile response rate indicates the percentage of responses that are equal to or less than the ART. When calculating, do not “average” response times.

1.4.1.5. Initial Full Alarm Assignment: Three companies arriving within 12 minutes 90% of the time with a staff of 13 firefighters. Fractile response rate indicates the percentage of responses that are equal to or less than the ART. When calculating, do not “average” response times.

1.4.2. Company: A group of F&ES members: (1) under the direct supervision of a fire officer; (2) trained and equipped to perform assigned tasks; (3) usually organized and identified as engine companies, ladder companies, rescue companies, ARFF companies, squad companies, or multifunctional companies; and (4) operating with one piece of fire apparatus except where multiple apparatus are assigned that are dispatched and arrive together, continuously operate together, and are managed by a single company officer; (5) arriving at the incident scene on fire apparatus.

1.4.2.1. Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting (ARFF) Company: A company that transports a specialized crew with specialized firefighting and rescue equipment prepared to combat fires in or around aircraft.

1.4.2.2. Engine Company: A fire company that pumps/delivers water and performs basic firefighting functions at fires, including search and rescue.

1.4.2.3. Ladder/Truck Company (i.e., Aerial Apparatus or Quint): A fire company that provides a variety of services associated with truck work, such as forcible entry, ventilation, search and rescue, aerial operations for water delivery, utility control, scene illumination, overhaul, and salvage work.

1.4.2.4. Rescue Company: A fire company that provides forcible entry, search and rescue, utility control, technical rescue, and emergency medical services.

1.4.3. Demand for Fire Service: The “demand” represents the firefighting resources required to control the event; such a demand is generally time-dependent in the case of a fire. For example:

1.4.3.1. A fire in an unsprinklered single-family residence may only require a single pumper, 4 firefighters (FFs) and a 100 gpm water supply at 7 minutes if the fire is contained but could require three pumpers, 13 FFs and a 1,000 gpm water supply if the fire grows quickly.

1.4.3.2. In general, the type of occupancy, the amount and the continuity of combustible contents and interior finish, the ceiling/roof height, the degree and effectiveness of compartmentalization, and the presence or absence of sprinkler protection will all influence the fire’s impact on demand for fire services. High monetary values or critical missions at risk could result in a higher demand for service than a comparable facility might justify.

1.4.4. Fire Dynamics: The study of how chemistry, fire science, material science, and engineering disciplines of fluid mechanics and heat transfer influence fire behavior.

1.4.5. Flashover: The transition from localized burning of a combustible article (e.g., a piece of furniture) to near-simultaneous ignition of all combustible materials in a compartment. The heated products of combustion from a burning object rise to the compartment’s ceiling and spread laterally to create a hot layer of gas. When that hot layer is constrained by walls and the depth of the layer increases, those hot gases radiate heat to all directly-exposed surfaces in the room. When the ceiling temperatures reach 1,100°F, the radiated heat is sufficient to cause auto- ignition of essentially all exposed combustibles in the room.

1.4.6. Flameover (Rollover): The condition in which unburned fuel (pyrolysate) from the originating fire has accumulated in the ceiling layer to a sufficient concentration (i.e., at or above the lower flammable limit) that it ignites and burns. Flameover can occur without ignition of or prior to the ignition of other fuels separate from the origin.

1.4.7. Flow Path: The movement of heat and smoke from the fire area (HIGHER PRESSURE) to towards the lower pressure areas accessible via doors and window openings. Based on varying building configurations, there may be several flow paths within a structure. Operations conducted in the flow path, between the fire and the where the fire wants to go, will place members at significant risk due to the increased flow of fire, heat and smoke toward their position.

1.4.7.1. Flow Path Control: The tactic of controlling or closing ventilation points that limit additional oxygen into the space, thereby: limiting fire development, heat release rate, and smoke production.

By controlling the flow path, firefighter’s goal is to direct the movement of the heat and smoke conditions out of the fire area to the exterior.

1.4.8. Fuel Limited Fire: A fire in which the heat release rate and fire growth are controlled by the quantity and characteristics of the fuel.

1.4.9. Fuel Load: The total quantity of combustible contents of a building, space, or fire area, including interior finish and trim, expressed in terms of heat release rate. Fires that involve hydrocarbon and synthetic based contents such as foam plastics, polyesters, polypropylenes, and nylons have a relatively high heat release rate when compared to the natural fiber products. Structure fires fueled with common household furnishings composed of synthetic materials have been shown to increase in size and heat release rate due to increased ventilation and the in-flow of additional oxygen.

1.4.10. Heat Release Rate: The rate at which energy is generated by the burning of a fuel and oxygen mixture. As the heat release rate increases, the heat, smoke production and pressure within the area will increase and spread along available flow paths toward low pressure areas (open doors, windows and roof openings).

1.4.11. Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH): The IDLH is defined in OSHA’s 29 CFR 1910.120, as “an atmosphere that poses an immediate threat to life, would cause irreversible adverse health effects, or would impair an individual's ability to escape from a dangerous atmosphere.”

1.4.12. Neutral Plane: The interface at a Bi-Directional Flow where the hot smoke and gases are moving out of the compartment over the top of cooler air, flowing moving into the compartment.

1.4.13. Path Of Least Resistance: The path that smoke and heat travel as they move from HIGHER PRESSURE to LOWER PRESSURE.

1.4.14. Pyrolysis: The breakdown of fuels such as, wood and foam plastics, into their basic compound when subjected to heat. Fuels will continue to off-gas (produce pyrolysate) and add to the flammable fuel load within the compartment as long as the material is subjected to elevated temperatures.

1.4.15. Transitional Attack: The tactic of applying water on the fire, from the exterior, as quickly as possible – regardless of where it is emitting from - to cool the fire and improve conditions in the interior and then transitioning to an interior fire attack.

1.4.16. Size-Up: The process of gathering and analyzing information that will influence decisions fire officers make regarding the deployment of resources and the implementation of tactics.

1.4.17. Uni-Directional Flow: A vent opening with only one way of smoke and hot gases venting outward or fresh air being drawn into the vent opening.

1.4.18. Ventilation: The controlled and coordinated removal of heat and smoke from a structure, replacing the escaping gases with fresh air. This exchange is bi-directional with heat and smoke exhausting at the top and air flowing in towards the fire at the bottom of horizontal vents. The fire will pull the additional air flow into the building towards the fire which can increase the fire size and heat release rate. This exchange can occur by opening doors, windows or roof structures. Coordinated and controlled ventilation will facilitate quicker extinguishment and limit fire spread.

1.4.19. Vent-Enter-Isolate-Search (VEIS): A search tactic where you enter a window or door to search for the location of fire or to locate victims where the priority upon entering via a window is to close the door to that room or area to isolate that area being searched from the fire area (Flow Path Control).

When entering a fire area through a door, the door needs to be closed (Door Control) until the fire area is further isolated or a charged hoseline is advancing on the fire. By isolating the area, we are controlling the flow path of the fire, heat and smoke towards the ventilation point as well as controlling the air flow from the ventilation point towards the fire.

1.4.20. Ventilation-Controlled/Limited Fire: A fire with limited ventilation in which the heat release rate or growth is controlled by the amount of oxygen available to the fire.

1.4.21. Ventilation Induced Flashover (VIF): A flashover initiated by the introduction of oxygen into a pre-heated, fuel rich (smoke filled), oxygen deficient area. This phenomenon has become more prevalent with well insulted homes. Synthetic fuel loads rapidly consume more of the available oxygen within the fire area and produce fuel rich combustion products creating conditions favorable to a possible ventilation induced flashover.

1.4.22. Ventilation Profile: The appearance of the fire building’s ventilation points showing the flow paths of heat and smoke out of the structure as well as any air movement into the structure.

1.4.23. Ventilation Tactics: The coordinated and controlled opening of ventilation points in a structure to facilitate fire operations.

SECTION 2 – FIRE DEVELOPMENT IN STRUCTURES

2.1. Fire Development in Compartments. Assuming a continuum of combustible materials, a fire will generally grow in size as time progresses. A fire’s rate of growth is influenced by the amount and configuration of available combustible materials and the availability of oxygen. As a fire progresses, gas (air and products of combustion) temperatures at the ceiling/roof in the fire area increase at a rate dependent upon the rate of burning and the compartment’s configuration. That “compartment” could be as small as a bedroom or as large as an open factory.

2.2. Standard Time-Temperature Curve. The international fire community uses “standard” time-temperature curves when testing building components for fire resistance ratings. In the U.S., a Standard Time-Temperature Curve developed by the NFPA was adopted by the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) International. Following its adoption as a national standard, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) conducted a series of full- scale fire tests which confirmed that the Standard Time-Temperature curve was representative of fully-developed fires in a number of occupancies having varying fuel loads.

2.2.1. Figure 1 shows the standard time-temperature curve recognized in the U.S. Other countries have adopted their own versions of a standard time-temperature curve, but all of those curves are essentially identical to the curve in Figure 1 during the first two hours of the fire test.

Figure 1 Standard Time and Temperature Curve

2.3. Flashover and Factors Influencing Flashover. A phenomenon known as “flashover” occurs when the ceiling gases reach a temperature of approximately 1100°F. At that temperature, the heat radiated from the gases at the ceiling of a compartment ignite essentially all combustibles in the room.

This is relevant because at this point, an unprotected person would not be expected to survive.

2.3.1. The time-to-flashover in unsprinklered occupancies is dependent upon ceiling heights, combustible fuel loading and configuration, degree of compartmentalization, ventilation and other factors. In open areas, the heated air will spread below the ceiling/roof until the heated air reaches a barrier which causes the heated air to develop into a thicker layer which can then radiate energy to objects on the floor of the area. Because it takes longer to develop the thick layer of heated air, a delay in open area flashover can occur or may not even occur if the open area is extensive.

2.3.2. In open areas with high ceilings/roofs, the heated gases in the fire plume cool by ambient air drawn into the plume, and those mixed gases reaching the ceiling/roof will have lower temperatures than in a confined space fire having the same rate of combustion. The combination of open area and high ceiling/roof heights significantly delay, or typically preclude, the transition to flashover.

2.4. Flashover in Differing Occupancies. Figure 2 compares fire growth curves and time-to-flashover for various occupancies.

Figure 2 Time to Flashover in Various Occupancies

2.4.1. There are computer fire models that accurately predict temperature growth for specific fuel packages and compartment configurations, but the cost of the software and hardware for running such models is significant. Likewise, collecting and inputting the data can be very time-intensive. The qualitative information in Table 1 is a reasonable correlation to the fire temperature profiles A through E in Figure 2.

TIME-TO-FLASHOVER IN VARIOUS OCCUPANCIES

E – Standard Time-Temperature Curve

D - Severe

FLASHOVER

C – Moderately Severe

B - Moderate

A - Light

0 10 50 100 110 120

Time (Minutes)

Te m pe ra tu re

F)

Occupancy Classification Definitions for Unsprinklered Facilities

Temperature Curve A (Light) NFPA Occupancy Classifications AF Example Well-arranged office, metal furniture, noncombustible building Welding areas containing slight combustibles CE Shops Noncombustible powerhouse Noncombustible buildings, slight amount of combustible occupancy Labs and most R&D operations

Aircraft maintenance & overhaul depots

Temperature Curve B (Moderate)

Cotton and waste paper storage (baled) and well-arranged, noncombustible buildings

Paper making processes, noncombustible building Noncombustible institutional buildings with combustible occupancy Admin/Offices: Labs & R&D ops with <50 gals of flammable liquids outside of storage cabinets/rooms

Temperature Curve C (Moderately Severe)

Well-arranged combustible storage, e.g. wooden patterns, noncombustible

Machine shop having noncombustible floors

Temperature Curve D (Severe) NFPA Occupancy Classifications AF Example Manufacturing areas, combustible products, noncombustible buildings Warehouses Congested combustible storage areas, noncombustible buildings

Temperature Curve E (Standard Fire Exposure-Severe) NFPA Occupancy Classifications AF Example Flammable liquids Woodworking areas Carpenter Shop Office, combustible furniture and buildings Paper working, printing, etc. Printing Plants Furniture manufacturing and finishing Machine shops that have combustible floors Residential occupancies (inserted by USAF) MFH, VOQ/VAQ, TLF, Dorms Table 1 Occupancy Classification Definitions for Unsprinklered Facilities

2.5. Flashover in Dwellings. It is generally accepted that flashover in an unsprinklered single- family residence will typically occur approximately 7.5 – 10 minutes after burning is established (a small wastebasket-sized fire). Referring to Figure 2, the time-temperature curve for an unsprinklered residential occupancy would fall in between profiles D and E.

2.5.1. Fire dynamics of residential fires has changed over the past 40 years. Fires in a contemporary home are more dangerous than older homes built before 1980. Increased size of homes, complexity of the floor plan layout, synthetic materials used in contents, and new construction materials allow for faster fire propagation, and shorter time before flashover giving occupants less time to escape.

Synthetic fuel loads rapidly consume more oxygen within the fire area and produce fuel rich combustion products creating conditions favorable to a possible ventilation induced flashover. These dangerous conditions can unexpectedly change providing little time for firefighter to react and respond.

2.5.2. According to a 2010 report, “Characteristics of New Housing” from US Department of Commerce, the average square footage of residential property grew from 1,550 ft2 in 1973 to over 2,500.46 ft2 in 2008. Larger homes provide more airspace to sustain fire growth. Larger homes also allow for storage of more combustible furnishings thereby increasing the fuel load. The study also reports an increase in the number of homes with a second story. This change increases the potential volume above a fire area enabling the smoke layer to remain in place as well as allowing longer fire growth time. The increase in homes with a second story directly affects the fire service as it means additional areas to search for rescue and egress.

2.5.3. The interior layout of a modern home can influence fire dynamics as well. Contemporary homes often include taller ceilings, spacious open floor plans, and two-story entryways. These open features remove compartmentation of the structure and can allow smoke and fire spread. While there are design requirements for commercial facilities to protect occupants with fire and smoke separations, similar mandates are lacking for single-family homes. The open floor plans and taller ceilings challenge firefighting operations because without compartmentation steam production from fire streams is reduced.

2.5.4. Home contents have changed from natural materials to mostly synthetic materials.

Upholstered furniture padding and cushions, once made of cotton, are constructed primarily of synthetic materials like polyurethane foam. How this impacts firefighting operations is an increased in rate of heat release after ignition. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) released a study in 1982 comparing different construction material used in upholstered furniture. The study found padded chairs covered in cotton fabric produced a peak heat release rate of 370 kW at 910 seconds (15.16 minutes) after ignition. The polyurethane foam padded chair generated a peak heat release rate of 1,990 kW at 260 seconds (4.33 minutes) after ignition. Based on the results of this study, synthetic foam material generated over five times the heat produced from natural material.

Additionally, the synthetic material heat release rate peaked almost 11 minutes sooner than the natural material. This increase in heat production and decreased time of survivable conditions places an emphasis on residents evacuating and quick, effective fire ground operations.

2.5.5. Construction material has changed over the last several decades as well. There has been a push to introduce engineered products providing better structural stability, faster construction time, and more cost effective. The engineered products are designed to reduce material mass satisfying an increased demand for environmentally sustainable products. Unfortunately, life and fire safety are not factored during material selection while using less material and cost are. Modern lightweight construction materials perform worse than older legacy construction materials. It is imperative for incident commanders, company officers, and firefighters to understand the hazards associated with lightweight construction to aid when assessing life safety risks to building occupants and firefighters.

SECTION 3 – FIRE RESPONSE DISTRICTS AND FIRE DEMAND ZONES

3.1. Fire Response Districts (FRDs). A FRD is the geographic area of first-run responsibility for a particular fire station. The concept of placing resources in a location to effect required first arriving apparatus response times is known as “Distribution.” Distribution goals should match DoD and AF requirements.

3.1.1. At an optimal level of service, a structural apparatus dispatched from the station should be capable of arriving at any point within its FRD within the target response time for the first-arriving apparatus. The full alarm complement, which may cross over FRDs is known as “Concentration”.

Concentration is the ability to get the effective response force in place to perform all critical tasks to mitigate emergencies within the DoD and AF requirements.

3.1.2. To determine the proper distribution and concentration of resources, departments should evaluate past response performance, critical task analysis, and a community risk assessment.

Numerous factors, including accessibility (security and travel impairments), geographical features such as ravines, rivers or railways and time of day may impact how FRDs are configured.

3.1.3. Because fires in unsprinklered structures generally grow in size as time passes, the earlier the fire suppression activity begins, the smaller the firefighting challenge and resulting in less damage.

However, reducing target response times has a very real cost in terms of additional fire stations, vehicles and manpower. Staffing vehicles and fire stations has a definite recurring annual cost which must be compared to the probabilities of fires and fire losses in those response areas.

3.1.4. For structural fire responses, the target response time should allow firefighters to apply water onto the fire before flashover occurs. But it is important to understand that for sprinklered facilities, and for many occupancies (Table 1) and types of construction (open areas and high ceilings/roofs), the time-to-flashover (Figure 2) will be significantly longer than the time-to- flashover in unsprinklered single-family residential occupancies.

3.2. Sample Fire Response Districts. Figure 3 below shows a sample fire response districts where the fire response districts are colored areas that indicate the first due assignment and are based on geographic limitations. There may be facilities or areas in a fire response district that exceed the performance targets. Facilities beyond the response targets (for first-arriving pumper or for the initial full alarm assignment) should be analyzed to determine if they account for a significant demand for service in a given year. These facilities may be addressed as remote and outlying facilities discussed in paragraph 4.7.

Figure 3 Sample Fire Response Districts

3.3. Fire Demand Zones (FDZ). DoDI 6055.06 defines FDZs as a geographic area used to analyze risk situations. FDZs are small areas that represent a single demand for fire service (i.e., the time-dependent amount of firefighting resources required to suppress a fire). For example, an area may have a predominant risk type with ancillary facilities interspersed throughout the area. The demand for service should be based on the predominant risk in a specific area unless a target hazard or High/Key risk is identified in the zone.

3.3.1. Risks in an FDZ can be consistent, such as a community of unsprinklered single-family residences served by a fire station, or an FDZ may contain diverse occupancies with similar fire risk.

3.3.2. If the firefighting requirements of a particular FDZ exceed the resources of that FRD, fire vehicles from other FRDs (including mutual aid partners) may be utilized to meet the full firefighting demand of that particular FDZ to assemble an effective response force.

3.4. Factors Influencing FDZs. In general, the fire demand is determined by the presence or absence of sprinkler protection; the occupancy classification and the nature of the contents; and the construction features. On a DoD or AF installation, the values at risk and the mission criticality should also be considered when determining the fire demand.

3.5. Sample Fire Demand Zones. An AF installation can be divided into both FRDs and FDZ’s. The fire demand zones are the numbered areas that are used to assess risk, determine response resources, and to analyze performance to a specific area or occupancy group. These fire demand zones should be used to assess risk, establish/validate a standard of cover, measure performance, and inform the governing body on F&ES capability.

Figure 4 Sample Fire Demand Zones

SECTION 4 – AGGREGATE RESPONSE TIME

4.1. Response Objectives. NFPA, ICMA, DoD and USAF all recognize the common objective of being able to apply agent to the fire prior to flashover. The DoD uses the response objectives in DoDI

6055.06. The NFPA criterion presented is for educational and comparison purposes.

Structural Fire Service Delivery Comparison

2,000 SF Structural Fire Service Delivery Comparison (MM:SS) NFPA 1710 DoDI 6055.06

Alarm Handling Time Dispatch Time 01:00 Alarm Answering Time (95%) 00:15

Alarm Processing Time 01:04 Turnout Time 01:20 Turnout Time 01:00 Travel Time Travel Time

First Arriving 04:00 First Arriving 05:00 Initial Full Alarm 08:00 Initial Full Alarm 10:00

Total Response Time Aggregate First Arriving 06:39 First Arriving 07:00

Initial Full Alarm 10:39 Initial Full Alarm 12:00 Table 2 Structural Fire Service Delivery Comparison

Figure 5 Cascade of Events Comparison

4.1.1. NFPA 1710’s response objectives are based upon intervening in a specific fire scenario prior to flashover. The standard acknowledges that the basis for its response objectives is a fire in an unsprinklered 2,000 SF, two-story single-family home without a basement and having no exposures.

4.1.1.1. As discussed in Section 2, the extensive presence of combustibles and the construction features in unsprinklered residential occupancies typically result in flashover in the 7.5 – 10 minute timeframe. For cities and most civilian communities, NFPA’s response objectives are logical because unsprinklered residential occupancies (homes, hotels, motels, hospitals, etc.) are typically distributed throughout the entire city/community.

4.2. Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ). NFPA 1710 also recognizes that the real world is not composed solely of unsprinklered homes requiring very short travel times of 4 – 8 minutes. NFPA 1710, Annex A provides the AHJ flexibility to develop response objectives for their environments:

4.2.1. The AHJ generally has the responsibility to determine the following:

4.2.1.1. Scope and level of service provided by the fire department

4.2.1.2. Necessary level of funding

4.2.1.3. Necessary level of personnel and resources, including facilities

4.2.2. The governing body has the right and should assert its authority to set the specific services and the limits of the services the fire department will provide.

4.2.3. Additional service delivery objectives should be established by the AHJ for occupancies other than those within the standard for benchmark single-family dwellings.

4.2.4. The factors that should be included in the AHJ’s risk assessment process include adopted building codes, required fire/life safety related engineering controls, accepted service delivery performance objectives, complexity of facilities, and occupancy hazards (low, medium, and high) within the jurisdiction.

4.2.5. The AHJ’s response objectives should be established based upon numerous factors such as the circumstances affecting response personnel, adopted building codes, required fire/life safety-related engineering controls, accepted turnout/travel times, complexity of facilities, and occupancy hazards within the jurisdiction.

4.3. Air Force AHJ. The AHJ for fire-related issues in the AF is the Director of Civil Engineers (CE), HQ AF/A4C. The AF CE, through AFI, technical implementation guides (TIGs), policies, and directives/guidance determines the elements identified in paragraphs 4.2.1. through 4.2.5.

4.3.1. Paragraph 4.3 is consistent with DoDI 6055.06’s definition of AHJ – The organization, office, or individual responsible, designated by the DoD Component for approving equipment, materials, and procedures for DoD Component fire departments.

4.4. Aggregate Response Time (ART). DoDI 6055.06 defines the minimum number of personnel and baseline ART required for each service delivery objective. The ART is comprised of the total of dispatch time, turnout time, and travel time. This is the elapsed time from the receipt of the emergency alarm to when the units arrive on the scene.

4.4.1. The DoDI provides optimum level of service (OLS) objectives of a 7-minute ART for the first-arriving structural company and a 12-minute ART for the remainder of the initial full alarm assignment, both with 90% performance goals. These objectives are consistent with NFPA 1710’s objectives associated with an unsprinklered residential fire scenario.

4.4.2. Figure 5 illustrates the relationship between the elements of response time and fire growth in a residential occupancy (a severe fire growth characteristic). This chart reflects dispatch time and turnout goals of 1-minute intervals and a travel time of 5-minutes. This allows the first- arriving company the opportunity to initiating fire suppression actions prior to flashover in an unsprinklered residential occupancy.

Figure 6 Elements of Response Time

4.4.3. There are two important data points in this chart:

4.4.3.1. This fire growth rate is essentially the worst-case scenario; occupancies other than residential dwellings will generally have slower temperature development curves.

4.4.3.2. In sprinklered structures, sprinklers will suppress (or extinguish) the fire and preclude ceiling temperatures from reaching flashover (1100°F), which negates the criticality of a 5-minute travel time.

4.5. Optimum Level of Service Response Criteria. The DoDI structural fire response objectives are consistent with NFPA 1710 objectives for an unsprinklered residential occupancy. The AF implements the DoDI criteria for OLS. However, the AF also recognizes that AF installations are substantially different from a civilian community in many significant ways.

4.5.1. In military family housing (MFH) and privatized MFH, there are numerous factors which differentiate AF residential fire risks from most residential risks in civilian communities. The AF has contracts with privatized MFH developers that require the privatized MFH contractor to fully comply with residential building codes, life-safety codes and property maintenance standards that preclude AF residential properties from deteriorating to the norm in most large cities.

4.5.1.1. In MFH, privatized MFH contractors typically provide electrical and heating systems maintenance by qualified technicians. Residents receive information on safety in all activities, including reoccurring fire safety articles in local media and public fire safety campaigns.

4.5.2. A high percentage of facilities on an AF installation are sprinklered, and the probability of flashover is extremely low in such facilities. For at least the last twenty-five years, DoD and AF standards have required sprinkler protection in essentially any meaningful building. These are the “fire/life safety-related engineering controls” mentioned previously which warrant response objectives different than NFPA 1710’s objectives.

4.5.3. In non-residential facilities, occupancy processes and hazards on AF installations are rigorously controlled by a system of regulations, instructions and mandatory inspections. The AF has strong oversight mechanisms including fire prevention, safety, and IG inspections that enforce the strict application of those regulations and instructions.

4.5.4. The AF has rigorous F&ES professional requirements that include a strictly enforced certification program, mandatory recurring technical training, and a specialized credentialing program. The local F&ES departments are constantly evaluated via self-assessments, by Wing Inspection Team member assessments and MAJCOM/IG inspections. These programs are among “the circumstances affecting response personnel” which warrant AF response objectives which differ from civilian community objectives.

4.5.5. Because it is an issue of life safety, AF installations should retain the OLS objective of a 7-minute initial response ART for unsprinklered residential occupancies, including MFH and privatized MFH, billeting, TLFs, and mobile home parks.

4.6. Fire Stations in Main Base Cantonment Areas. AF fire stations should also be located to support OLS response criteria for major accumulations of buildings, including main base cantonment areas. However, when staffing falls to a reduced level of service (RLS) in main base cantonment areas, management should consider reallocating resources to high demand areas and overtime is not necessarily required to fill all of the positions associated with OLS.

4.6.1. For the purpose of structural responses, facilities that are beyond the 7-minute/12-minute ARTs can be classified as remote or outlying facilities. This definition enables an AF installation to apply data driven assessments of risks, costs, and benefits. This standard recognizes that some facilities may be sited remotely for safety or security reasons, including security requirements that are specifically intended to restrict vehicle access.

4.7. Remote or Outlying Facilities. Recognizing that non-residential occupancies and sprinklered facilities do not require the 7-minute/12-minute ARTs associated with unsprinklered residences, the AF adopted guidelines specified in Table 3 for remote or outlying facilities.

ARTs for Remote or Outlying Facilities

Type of Construction

Type of Occupancy

1st Arriving Vehicle (minutes)

Required Follow-On Vehicles (minutes)

Sprinklered Unsprinklered Sprinklered Unsprinklered Noncombustible Residential 12 10 20 12 Combustible Residential 10 7 15 10 Noncombustible Schools 12 10 18 12 Combustible Schools 10 7 12 10 Noncombustible Health Care –

Ambulatory 12 7 20 10

Combustible Health Care - Ambulatory

7 7 10 8

Noncombustible Health Care – Ambulatory

20 20 25 25

Combustible Health Care - Ambulatory

14 14 20 20

Noncombustible All Others 20 20 25 25 Combustible All Others 14 14 20 20

Table 3 ARTs for Remote or Outlying Facilities

4.7.1. For remote or outlying facilities outside the travel times in Table 2, information from a risk assessment identifies the potential impact of a delayed arrival. Such risk assessments must consider, as a minimum, occupancy classification, type of construction, installed fire protection systems, nature of contents, value at risk, mission criticality, life safety, water supplies, mutual aid, and other relevant factors. Facilities having travel times in excess of Table 2 do not necessarily require additional resources (vehicles, staffing, or fire stations). A fact-based risk assessment determines whether alternative measures implemented can reduce the risk to an acceptable level vice incurring additional recurring expenses for F&ES resources.

SECTION 5 – CAPABILITIES

5.1 Staffing and Manpower Criteria. The foundation for AF peacetime F&ES staffing and standards of emergency response coverage requirements are based on DoDI 6055.06. AF F&ES staffing requirements are established in AFI 32-2001 and the task-based AFMS 44F1. The local Manpower and Organization Office applies AFMS 44F1 and the MAJCOM Fire Protection Office (FPO) validates the work done by the local Manpower and Organization Office. The Installation Fire Chief and MAJCOM FPOs should review that data annually for currency. Application of AFMS 44F1 should be maintained as an official record on file at both the fire department and MAJCOM FPOs.

5.1.1. AFMS 44F1 establishes the core Optimum Level of Service (OLS) to support structural firefighting missions at 13 firefighters. OLS is the capability to accomplish all tasks required to manage a typical structural incident. F&ES personnel on the fire ground may be multi-tasked in order to accomplish the incident tasks identified in NFPA 1710.