TE_02_-_Handbook_for_Playground_Safety_-_Pub_No_325_April_2008.pdf

This draft document was prepared by CPSC staff and has not been reviewed or approved by, and may not necessarily represent the views of, the Commission.

U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission Saving Lives and Keeping Families Safe

Public Playground Safety Handbook

Public Playground Safety Handbook

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.

1. Introduction

1.1 Scope

1.2 Intended Audience

1.3 What is a Public Playground?

1.4 Public Playground Safety Voluntary Standards and CPSC Handbook History

1.4.1 ASTM playground standards

1.5 Significant Revisions for 2008

1.5.1 Equipment guidelines

1.5.2 Surfacing guidelines

1.5.3 General guidelines

1.5.4 Other revisions

1.6 Background

1.7 Playground Injuries

1.8 Definitions

2 General Playground Considerations

2.1 Selecting a Site

2.1.1 Shading considerations

2.2 Playground Layout

2.2.1 Accessibility

2.2.2 Age separation

2.2.3 Conflicting activities

2.2.4 Sight lines

2.2.5 Signage and/or labeling

2.2.6 Supervision

2.3 Selecting Equipment

2.3.1 Equipment not recommended

2.4 Surfacing

2.4.1 Equipment not covered by protective surfacing recommendations

2.4.2 Selecting a surfacing material

2.5 Equipment Materials

2.5.1 Durability and finish

2.5.2 Hardware

2.5.3 Metals

2.5.4 Paints and finishes

2.5.5 Wood

2.6 Assembly and Installation

3 Playground Hazards

3.1 Crush and Shearing Points

3.2 Entanglement and Impalement

3.2.1 Strings and ropes

3.3 Entrapment

3.3.1 Head entrapment

3.3.2 Angles

3.4 Sharp Points, Corners, and Edges

3.5 Suspended Hazards

3.6 Tripping Hazards

3.7 Used Tires

PUBLICATION #325 • APRIL 2008

Handbook for Playground Safety

4 Maintaining a Playground

4.1 Maintenance Inspections

4.2 Repairs

4.3 Maintaining Loose-Fill Surfacing

4.4 Recordkeeping

5 Parts of the Playground

5.1 Platforms, Guardrails and Protective Barriers

5.1.1 Platforms

5.1.2 Stepped platforms

5.1.3 Guardrails and protective barriers

5.2 Access Methods to Play Equipment

5.2.1 Ramps, stairways, rung ladders, and step ladders

5.2.2 Rungs and other hand gripping components

5.2.3 Handrails

5.2.4 Transition from access to platform

5.3 Major Types of Playground Equipment

5.3.1 Balance beams

5.3.2 Climbing and upper body equipment

5.3.3 Log rolls

5.3.4 Merry-go-rounds

5.3.5 Seesaws

5.3.6 Slides

5.3.7 Spring rockers

5.3.8 Swings

5.3.9 Fall height and use zones not specified elsewhere

APPENDICES

A Appendix A: Suggested General Maintenance Checklist

B Appendix B: Playground Testing B.1 Templates, Gauges, and Testing Tools B.2 Test Methods B.2.1 Determining whether a projection is a protrusion B.2.2 Projections on suspended members of swing assemblies B.2.3 Projections on slides B.2.4 Angles B.2.5 Entrapment B.2.6 Test fixtures

1. INTRODUCTION

In recent years, it is estimated that there were more than 156,000 injuries annually on public playgrounds across the country that required emergency room treatment. By following the recommended guidelines in this handbook, you and your community can create a safer playground environment for all children and contribute to the reduc-tion of playground-related deaths and injuries.

1.1 Scope

This handbook presents safety information for public play-ground equipment in the form of guidelines. Publication of this handbook is expected to promote greater safety aware-ness among those who purchase, install, and maintain public playground equipment. Because many factors may affect playground safety, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) staff believes that guidelines, rather than a mandatory rule, are appropriate. These guidelines are not being issued as the sole method to minimize injuries associated with playground equipment. However, CPSC staff believes that the recommendations in this handbook will contribute to greater playground safety.

Some states and local jurisdictions may require compliance with this handbook and/or ASTM voluntary standards.

Additionally, risk managers, insurance companies, or others may require compliance at a particular site; check with state/local jurisdictions and insurance companies for specific requirements.

1.2 Intended Audience

This handbook is intended for use by childcare personnel, school officials, parks and recreation personnel, equipment purchasers and installers, playground designers, and any other members of the general public (e.g., parents and school groups) concerned with public playground safety and inter-ested in evaluating their respective playgrounds. Due to the wide range of possible users, some information provided may be more appropriate for certain users than others.

1.3 What is a Public Playground?

“Public” playground equipment refers to equipment for use by children ages 6 months through 12 years in the play-ground areas of:

• Commercial (non-residential) child care facilities

• Institutions

• Multiple family dwellings, such as apartment and condo-minium buildings

• Parks, such as city, state, and community maintained parks

• Restaurants

• Resorts and recreational developments

• Schools

• Other areas of public use

These guidelines are not intended for amusement park equipment, sports or fitness equipment normally intended for users over the age of 12 years, soft contained play equip-ment, constant air inflatable play devices for home use, art and museum sculptures (not otherwise designed, intended and installed as playground equipment), equipment found in water play facilities, or home playground equipment.

Equipment components intended solely for the disabled and modified to accommodate such users also are not covered by these guidelines. Indoor child care facilities should refer to ASTM F2373 — Standard Consumer Safety Performance Specification for Public Use Play Equipment for Children 6 Months Through 23 Months, for more guidance on areas unique to their facilities.

1.4 Public Playground Safety Voluntary

Standards and CPSC Handbook History

• 1981 – First CPSC Handbook for Public Playground Safety was published, a two-volume set.

• 1991 – Standard Specification for Impact Attenuation of Surface Systems Under and Around Playground Equipment, ASTM F1292, was first published.

• 1991 – Two-volume set was replaced by a single-volume handbook, which contained recommendations based on a COMSIS Corporation report to the CPSC (Development of Human Factors Criteria for Playground Equipment Safety).

• 1993 – First version of voluntary standard for public play-ground equipment, ASTM F1487 — Standard Consumer Safety Performance Specification for Playground Equipment for Public Use, was published (revisions occur every 3 to 4 years).

• 1994 – Minor revisions to the Handbook.

• 1997 – Handbook was updated based on (1) staff review of ASTM F1487, (2) playground safety roundtable meet-ing held October 1996, and (3) public comment received to a May 1997 CPSC staff request.

• 2005 – First version of voluntary standard for playground equipment intended for children under two years old, ASTM F2373 — Standard Consumer Safety Performance Specification for Public Use Play Equipment for Children 6 Months Through 23 Months, was published.

• 2008 – Handbook was updated based on comments received from members of the ASTM F15 Playground Committees in response to a CPSC staff request for sug-gested revisions. Significant revisions are listed below.

1.4.1 ASTM playground standards

Below is a list of ASTM standards that relate to playgrounds:

• F1487 Standard Consumer Safety Performance Specification for Playground Equipment for Public Use.

• F2373 Standard Consumer Safety Performance Specification for Public Use Play Equipment for Children 6 Months through 23 Months.

• F1292 Standard Specification for Impact Attenuation of Surface Systems Under and Around Playground Equipment.

• F2075 Standard Specification for Engineered Wood Fiber for Use as a Playground Safety Surface Under and Around Playground Equipment.

• F2223 Standard Guide for ASTM Standards on Playground Surfacing.

• F2479 Standard Guide for Specification, Purchase, Installation and Maintenance of Poured-In-Place Playground Surfacing.

• F1951 Standard Specification for Determination of Accessibility of Surface Systems Under and Around Playground Equipment.

• F1816 Standard Safety Specification for Drawstrings on Children's Upper Outerwear.

• F2049 Standard Guide for Fences/Barriers for Public, Commercial, and Multi-Family Residential Use Outdoor Play Areas.

• F1148 Standard Consumer Safety Performance Specification for Home Playground Equipment.

• F1918 Standard Safety Performance Specification for Soft Contained Play Equipment.

1.5 Significant Revisions for 2008

1.5.1 Equipment guidelines

• Age ranges expanded to include children as young as 6 months based on ASTM F2373

• Guidelines for track rides and log rolls added

• Exit zone requirements for slides harmonized with ASTM F1487

1.5.2 Surfacing guidelines

• Critical height table revised

• Suggestions for surfacing over asphalt added

1.5.3 General guidelines

• Suggestions on sun exposure added

1.5.4 Other revisions

• Editorial changes to make the Handbook easier to under-stand and use

1.6 Background

The safety of each individual piece of playground equipment as well as the layout of the entire play area should be consid-ered when designing or evaluating a playground for safety.

Since falls are a very common playground hazard pattern, the installation and maintenance of protective surfacing under and around all equipment is crucial to protect chil-dren from severe head injuries.

Because all playgrounds present some challenge and because children can be expected to use equipment in unintended and unanticipated ways, adult supervision is highly recom-mended. The handbook provides some guidance on supervi-sory practices that adults should follow. Appropriate equip-ment design, layout, and maintenance, as discussed in this handbook, are also essential for increasing public playground safety.

A playground should allow children to develop gradually and test their skills by providing a series of graduated challenges.

The challenges presented should be appropriate for age-related abilities and should be ones that children can per-ceive and choose to undertake. Toddlers, preschool- and school-age children differ dramatically, not only in physical size and ability, but also in their intellectual and social skills.

Therefore, age-appropriate playground designs should accommodate these differences with regard to the type, scale, and the layout of equipment. Recommendations throughout this handbook address the different needs of tod-dlers, preschool-age, and school-age children; “toddlers” refers to children ages 6 months through 2 years of age, “preschool-age” refers to children 2 through 5 years, and “school-age” refers to children 5 through 12 years. The over-lap between these groups is anticipated in terms of play-ground equipment use and provides for a margin of safety.

Playground designers, installers and operators should be aware that the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) is a comprehensive civil rights law which prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability. Titles II and III of the ADA require, among other things, that newly construct-ed and altered State and local government facilities, places of public accommodation, and commercial facilities be readi-ly accessible to and usable by individuals with disabilities.

Recreation facilities, including play areas, are among the types of facilities covered by titles II and III of the ADA.

The Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Boards – also referred to as the “Access Board” – has devel-oped accessibility guidelines for newly constructed and altered play areas that were published October 2000. The play area guidelines are a supplement to the Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG). Once these guidelines are adopted as enforceable standards by the Department of Justice, all newly constructed and altered play areas covered by the ADA will be required to comply.

These guidelines also apply to play areas covered by the Architectural Barriers Act (ABA).

Copies of the play area accessibility guidelines and further technical assistance can be obtained from the U.S. Access Board, 1331 F Street, NW, Suite 1000, Washington, DC

20004-1111; 800-872-2253, 800-993-2822 (TTY),

www.access-board.gov.

1.7 Playground Injuries

The U. S. Consumer Product Safety Commission has long recognized the potential hazards that exist with the use of public playground equipment. The most recent CPSC staff study of public playground equipment-related injuries treated in U.S. hospital emergency rooms indicated that the majority (79%) resulted from falls from equipment.1 These were pri-marily falls to the ground surface below the equipment rather than falls from one part of the equipment to another part. Other hazard patterns involved colliding with station-ary equipment and contact with hazards such as protrusions, crush or shear points, sharp edges, hot surfaces, and play-ground debris. Fatal injuries reported to the Commission involved falls, entanglement of clothing or other items, entanglement in ropes, head entrapment in openings, and impact from equipment tip over or structural failure.

The recommendations in this handbook have been devel-oped to address the hazards that resulted in playground-related injuries and deaths. The recommendations include those that address:

• The potential for falls from and impact with equipment

• The need for impact attenuating protective surfacing under and around equipment

• Openings with the potential for head entrapment

• The scale of equipment and other design features related to user age and layout of equipment on a playground

• Installation and maintenance procedures

• General hazards presented by protrusions, sharp edges, and crush or shear points

1.8 Definitions

Barrier — An enclosing device around an elevated platform that is intended to prevent both inadvertent and deliberate attempts to pass through the device.

Composite Structure — Two or more play components attached or directly adjacent to each other creating one integral unit that provides more than one play activity (e.g., combination climber, slide, and horizontal ladder).

Critical Height — The fall height below which a life-threat-ening head injury would not be expected to occur.

Designated Play Surface — Any elevated surface for stand-ing, walking, crawling, sitting or climbing, or a flat surface greater than 2 inches wide by 2 inches long having an angle less than 30° from horizontal.

Handbook for Playground Safety

1 Tinsworth, D.K. and McDonald, J.E.; Special Study: Injuries and Deaths Associated with Children’s Playground Equipment. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission: Washington DC, April 2001.

Embankment Slide — A slide that follows the contour of the ground and at no point is the bottom of the chute greater than 12 inches above the surrounding ground.

Entanglement — A condition in which the user’s clothes or something around the user’s neck becomes caught or entwined on a component of playground equipment.

Entrapment — Any condition that impedes withdrawal of a body or body part that has penetrated an opening.

Fall Height — The vertical distance between the highest designated play surface on a piece of equipment and the pro-tective surfacing beneath it.

Footing — A means for anchoring playground equipment to the ground.

Full Bucket Seat Swing — A swing generally appropriate for children under 4 years of age that provides support on all sides and between the legs of the occupant and cannot be entered or exited without adult assistance.

Geotextile (filter) Cloth — A fabric that retains its relative structure during handling, placement, and long-term service to enhance water movement, retard soil movement, and to add reinforcement and separation between the soil and the surfacing and/or sub-base.

Guardrail — An enclosing device around an elevated plat-form that is intended to prevent inadvertent falls from the elevated surface.

Infill —Material(s) used in a protective barrier or between decks to prevent a user from passing through the barrier (e.g., vertical bars, lattice, solid panel, etc.).

Loose-Fill Surfacing Material — A material used for protec-tive surfacing in the use zone that consists of loose particles such as sand, gravel, engineered wood fibers, or shredded rubber.

Preschool-Age Children — Children 2 years of age through 5 years of age.

Projection — Hardware that extends outward from a surface of the playground equipment and must be tested to deter-mine whether it is a protrusion or entanglement hazard, or both.

Protective Barrier — See Barrier.

Protective Surfacing — Shock absorbing (i.e., impact atten-uating) surfacing material in the use zone that conforms to the recommendations in §2.4 of this handbook.

Protrusion — A projection which, when tested, is found to be a hazard having the potential to cause bodily injury to a user who impacts it, or whose clothing becomes entangled on it.

Roller Slide — A slide that has a chute consisting of a series of individual rollers over which the user travels.

School-Age Children — Children 5 years of age through 12 years of age.

Slide Chute — The inclined sliding surface of a slide.

Stationary Play Equipment — Any play structure that has a fixed base and does not move.

Supervisor — Any person tasked with watching children on a playground. Supervisors may be paid professionals (e.g., childcare, elementary school or park and recreation person-nel), paid seasonal workers (e.g., college or high school stu-dents), volunteers (e.g., PTA members), or unpaid caregivers (e.g., parents) of the children playing in the playground.

Toddlers — Children 6 months through 2 years of age.

Tube Slide — A slide in which the chute consists of a totally enclosed tube or tunnel.

Unitary Surfacing Material — A manufactured material used for protective surfacing in the use zone that may be rubber tiles, mats, or a combination of energy absorbing materials held in place by a binder that may be poured in place at the playground site and cures to form a unitary shock absorbing surface.

Upper Body Equipment — Equipment designed to support a child by the hands only (e.g., horizontal ladder, overhead swinging rings).

Use Zone — The surface under and around a piece of equipment onto which a child falling from or exiting from the equipment would be expected to land. These areas are also designated for unrestricted circulation around the equipment.

2.1.1 Shading considerations

According to the American Academy of Dermatology, research indicates that one in five Americans will develop some form of skin cancer during their lifetime, and five or more sunburns double the risk of developing skin cancer.

Utilizing existing shade (e.g., trees), designing play structures as a means for providing shading (e.g., elevated platforms with shaded space below), or creating more shade (e.g., man-made structures) are potential ways to design a playground to help protect children’s skin from the sun. When trees are used for shade, additional maintenance issues arise, such as the need for cleaning up debris and trimming limbs.

2.2 Playground Layout

There are several key factors to keep in mind when laying out a playground:

• Accessibility

• Age separation

• Conflicting activities

• Sight lines

• Signage and/or labeling

• Supervision

Handbook for Playground Safety

Site Factor

Travel patterns of children to and from the playground

Nearby accessible hazards such as roads with traffic, lakes, ponds, streams, drop-offs/cliffs, etc.

Sun exposure

Slope and drainage

Questions to Ask

Are there hazards in the way?

Could a child inadvertently run into a nearby hazard?

Could younger children easily wander off toward the hazard?

Is sun exposure sufficient to heat exposed bare metal slides, plat-forms, steps, & surfacing enough to burn children?

Will children be exposed to the sun during the most intense part of the day?

Will loose fill materials wash away during periods of heavy rain?

If yes, then…Mediation

Clear hazards.

Provide a method to contain chil-dren within the playground. For example, a dense hedge or a fence. The method should allow for observation by supervisors. If fences are used, they should conform to local building codes and/or ASTM F-2049.

Bare metal slides, platforms, and steps should be shaded or locat-ed out of direct sun.

Provide warnings that equipment and surfacing exposed to intense sun can burn.

Consider shading the playground or providing shaded areas near-by.

Consider proper drainage re-grading to prevent wash outs.

2. GENERAL PLAYGROUND CONSIDERATIONS

2.1 Selecting a Site

The following factors are important when selecting a site for a new playground:

2.2.1 Accessibility

Special consideration should be given to providing accessible surfaces in a play area that meets the ASTM Standard Specification for Determination of Accessibility of Surface Systems Under and Around Playground Equipment, ASTM F1951.

Equipment selection and location along with the type of pro-tective surfacing are key components to ensuring the oppor-tunity for children with disabilities to play on the playground.

2.2.2 Age separation

For playgrounds intended to serve children of all ages, the layout of pathways and the landscaping of the playground should show the distinct areas for the different age groups.

The areas should be separated at least by a buffer zone, which could be an area with shrubs or benches. This separation and buffer zone will reduce the chance of injury from older, more active children running through areas filled with younger children with generally slower movement and reaction times.

2.2.3 Conflicting activities

The play area should be organized into different sections to prevent injuries caused by conflicting activities and children running between activities. Active, physical activities should be separate from more passive or quiet activities. Areas for playground equipment, open fields, and sand boxes should be located in different sections of the playground. In addi-tion, popular, heavy-use pieces of equipment or activities should be dispersed to avoid crowding in any one area.

Different types of equipment have different use zones that must be maintained. The following are general recommenda-tions for locating equipment within the playground site.

Specific use zones for equipment are given in §5.3.

• Moving equipment, such as swings and merry-go-rounds, should be located toward a corner, side, or edge of the play area while ensuring that the appropriate use zones around the equipment are maintained.

• Slide exits should be located in an uncongested area of the playground.

• Use zones for moving equipment, such as swings and merry-go-rounds, and slide exits should not overlap the use zone of other equipment, regardless of height.

– One exemption is for moving equipment where the diameter of the platform is less than 20 inches and the designated play surface of the adjacent equipment is less than 30 inches.

Composite play structures have become increasingly popular on public playgrounds. Adjacent components on composite structures should be complementary.

2.2.4 Sight lines

Playgrounds that are designed, installed, and maintained in accordance with safety guidelines and standards can still pre-sent hazards to children. Playgrounds should be laid out to allow parents or caregivers to keep track of children as they move throughout the playground environment. Visual barri-ers should be minimized as much as possible. For example, in a park situation, playground equipment should be as visible as possible from park benches. In playgrounds with areas for different ages, the older children’s area should be visible from the younger children’s area to ensure that caregivers of mul-tiple children can see older children while they are engaged in interactive play with younger ones.

2.2.5 Signage and/or labeling

Although the intended user group should be obvious from the design and scale of equipment, signs and/or labels posted in the playground area or on the equipment should give some guidance to supervisors as to the age appropriateness of the equipment.

2.2.6 Supervision

The quality of the supervi-sion depends on the quali-ty of the supervisor’s knowledge of safe play behavior. Playground designers should be aware of the type of supervision most likely for their given play-ground. Depending on the location and nature of the play-ground, the supervisors may be paid professionals (e.g., child-care, elementary school or park and recreation personnel), paid seasonal workers (e.g., college or high school students), volunteers (e.g., PTA members), or unpaid caregivers (e.g., parents) of the children playing in the playground.

Parents and playground supervisors should be aware that not all playground equipment is appropriate for all children who may use the playground. Supervisors should look for posted signs indicating the appropriate age of the users and direct children to equipment appropriate for their age. Supervisors may also use the information in Table 1 to determine the suitability of the equipment for the children they are super-vising. Toddlers and preschool-age children require more attentive supervision than older children; however, one should not rely on supervision alone to prevent injuries.

Supervisors should understand the basics of playground safe-ty such as:

• Checking for broken equipment and making sure children don’t play on it.

• Checking for and removing unsafe modifications, especial-ly ropes tied to equipment, before letting children play.

• Checking for properly maintained protective surfacing.

• Making sure children are wearing foot wear.

• Watching and stopping dangerous horseplay, such as chil-dren throwing protective surfacing materials, jumping from heights, etc.

• Watching for and stopping children from wandering away from the play area.

2.3 Selecting Equipment

When selecting playground equipment, it is important to know the age range of the children who will be using the playground. Children at different ages and stages of develop-ment have different needs and abilities. Playgrounds should be designed to stimulate children and encourage them to develop new skills, but should be in scale with their sizes, abilities, and developmental levels. Consideration should also be given to providing play equipment that is accessible to children with disabilities and encourages integration with-in the playground.

Table 1 shows the appropriate age range for various pieces of playground equipment. This is not an all-comprehensive list and, therefore, should not limit inclusion of current or newly designed equipment that is not specifically mentioned. For equipment listed in more than one group, there may be some modifications or restrictions based on age, so consult the specific recommendations in §5.3.

Handbook for Playground Safety

Toddler —Under 2

• Climbing equipment under 32” high

• Ramps

• Single file step ladders

• Slides*

• Spiral slides less than 360°

• Spring rockers

• Stairways

• Swings with full bucket seats

* See §5.3.6

Preschool — Ages 2-5

• Certain climbers**

• Horizontal ladders less than or equal to 60” high for ages 4 and

• Merry-go-rounds

• Ramps

• Rung ladders

• Single file step ladders

• Slides*

• Spiral slides up to 360°

• Spring rockers

• Stairways

• Swings – belt, full bucket seats (2-4 years) & rotating tire

** See §5.3.2

Grade School — Ages 5-12

• Arch climbers

• Chain or cable walks

• Free standing climbing events with flexible parts

• Fulcrum seesaws

• Ladders – Horizontal, Rung, & Step

• Overhead rings***

• Merry-go-rounds

• Ramps

• Ring treks

• Slides*

• Spiral slides more than one 360° turn

• Stairways

• Swings – belt & rotating tire

• Track rides

• Vertical sliding poles

*** See §5.3.2.5

TABLE 1. AGE APPROPRIATE EQUIPMENT

2.3.1 Equipment not recommended

Some playground equipment is not recommended for use on public playgrounds, including:

• Trampolines

• Swinging gates

• Giant strides

• Climbing ropes that are not secured at both ends.

• Heavy metal swings (e.g., animal figures) – These are not recommended because their heavy rigid metal framework presents a risk of impact injury.

• Multiple occupancy swings – With the exception of tire swings, swings that are intended for more than one user are not recommended because their greater mass, as com-pared to single occupancy swings, presents a risk of impact injury.

• Rope swings – Free-swinging ropes that may fray or other-wise form a loop are not recommended because they pre-sent a potential strangulation hazard.

• Swinging dual exercise rings and trapeze bars – These are rings and trapeze bars on long chains that are generally considered to be items of athletic equipment and are not recommended for public playgrounds. NOTE: The recom-mendation against the use of exercise rings does not apply to overhead hanging rings such as those used in a ring trek or ring ladder (see Figure 7).

2.4 Surfacing

The surfacing under and around playground equip-ment is one of the most important factors in reducing the likelihood of life-threat-ening head injuries. A fall onto a shock absorbing sur-face is less likely to cause a serious head injury than a fall onto a hard surface. However, some injuries from falls, including broken limbs, may occur no matter what playground surfacing material is used.

The most widely used test method for evaluating the shock absorbing properties of a playground surfacing material is to drop an instrumented metal headform onto a sample of the material and record the acceleration/time pulse during the impact. Field and laboratory test methods are described in

ASTM F1292 Standard Specification for Impact Attenuation of Surface Systems Under and Around Playground Equipment.

Testing using the methods described in ASTM F1292 will provide a “critical height” rating of the surface. This height can be considered as an approximation of the fall height below which a life-threatening head injury would not be expected to occur. Manufacturers and installers of play-ground protective surfacing should provide the critical height rating of their materials. This rating should be greater than or equal to the fall height of the highest piece of equip-ment on the playground. The fall height of a piece of equip-ment is the distance between the highest designated play surface on a piece of equipment and the protective surface beneath it. Details for determining the highest designated play surface and fall height on some types of equipment are included in §5 Parts of the Playground.

2.4.1 Equipment not covered by protective

surfacing recommendations

The recommendations for protective surfacing do not apply to equipment that requires a child to be standing or sitting at ground level. Examples of such equipment are:

• Sand boxes

• Activity walls at ground level

• Play houses

• Any other equipment that children use when their feet remain in contact with the ground surface

2.4.2 Selecting a surfacing material

There are two options available for surfacing public play-grounds: unitary and loose-fill materials. A playground should never be installed without protective surfacing of some type. Concrete, asphalt, or other hard surfaces should never be directly under playground equipment. Grass and dirt are not considered protective surfacing because wear and environmental factors can reduce their shock absorbing effectiveness. Carpeting and mats are also not appropriate unless they are tested to and comply with ASTM F1292.

Loose-fill should be avoided for playgrounds intended for toddlers.

2.4.2.1 Unitary surfacing materials

Unitary materials are generally rubber mats and tiles or a combination of energy-absorbing materials held in place by a binder that may be poured in place at the playground site and then cured to form a unitary shock absorbing surface.

Unitary materials are available from a number of different manufacturers, many of whom have a range of materials with differing shock absorbing properties. New surfacing materi-als, such as bonded wood fiber and combinations of loose-fill and unitary, are being developed that may also be tested to ASTM F1292 and fall into the unitary materials category.

When deciding on the best surfacing materials keep in mind that some dark colored surfacing materials exposed to the intense sun have caused blistering on bare feet. Check with the manufacturer if light colored materials are available or provide shading to reduce direct sun exposure.

Persons wishing to install a unitary material as a playground surface should request ASTM F1292 test data from the man-ufacturer identifying the critical height rating of the desired surface. In addition, site requirements should be obtained from the manufacturer because some unitary materials require installation over a hard surface while others do not.

Manufacturer’s instructions should be followed closely, as some unitary systems require professional installation.

Testing should be conducted in accordance with the ASTM F1292 standard.

2.4.2.2 Loose-fill surfacing materials

Engineered wood fiber (EWF) is a wood product that may look similar in appearance to landscaping mulch, but EWF products are designed specifically for use as a playground safety surface under and around playground equipment.

EWF products should meet the specifications in ASTM F2075: Standard Specification for Engineered Wood Fiber and be tested to and comply with ASTM F1292.

There are also rubber mulch products that are designed specifically for use as playground surfacing. Make sure they have been tested to and comply with ASTM F1292.

When installing these products, tips 1-7 listed below should be followed. Each manufacturer of engineered wood fiber and rubber mulch should provide maintenance requirements for and test data on:

• Critical height based on ASTM F1292 impact attenuation testing.

• Minimum fill-depth data.

• Toxicity.

• ADA/ABA accessibility guidelines for firmness and stabil-ity based on ASTM F1951.

Handbook for Playground Safety

Appropriate Surfacing

• Any material tested to ASTM F1292, including unitary surfaces, engineered wood fiber, etc.

• Pea gravel

• Sand

• Shredded/recycled rubber mulch

• Wood mulch (not CCA-treated)

• Wood chips

Inappropriate Surfacing

• Asphalt

• Carpet not tested to ASTM F1292

• Concrete

• Dirt

• Grass

• CCA treated wood mulch

Other loose-fill materials are generally landscaping-type materials that can be layered to a certain depth and resist compacting. Some examples include wood mulch, wood chips, sand, pea gravel, and shredded/recycled rubber mulch.

Important tips when considering loose-fill materials:

1. Loose-fill materials will compress at least 25% over time due to use and weathering. This must be considered when planning the playground. For example, if the playground will require 9 inches of wood chips, then the initial fill level should be 12 inches. See Table 2 below.

2. Loose-fill surfacing requires frequent maintenance to ensure surfacing levels never drop below the minimum depth. Areas under swings and at slide exits are more sus-ceptible to displacement; special attention must be paid to maintenance in these areas. Additionally, wear mats can be installed in these areas to reduce displacement.

3. The perimeter of the playground should provide a method of containing the loose-fill materials.

4. Consider marking equipment supports with a minimum fill level to aid in maintaining the original depth of material.

5. Good drainage is essential to maintaining loose-fill surfacing. Standing water with surfacing material reduces effectiveness and leads to material compaction and decomposition.

6. Critical height may be reduced during winter in areas where the ground freezes.

7. Never use less than 9 inches of loose-fill material.

Shallower depths are too easily displaced and compacted.

8. Some loose-fill materials may not meet ADA/ABA acces-sibility guidelines. For more information, contact the Access Board (see §1.6) or refer to ASTM F1951.

9. Wood mulch containing chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated wood products should not be used; mulch where the CCA-content is unknown should be avoided (see §2.5.5.1).

Table 2 shows the minimum required depths of loose-fill material needed based on material type and fall height. The depths shown assume the materials have been compressed due to use and weathering and are properly maintained to the given level.

2.4.2.3 Installing loose-fill over hard surface

CPSC staff strongly recommends against installing play-grounds over hard surfaces, such as asphalt, concrete, or hard packed earth, unless the installation adds the following layers of protection. Immediately over the hard surface there should be a 3- to 6-inch base layer of loose-fill (e.g., gravel for drainage). The next layer should be a Geotextile cloth.

On top of that should be a loose-fill layer meeting the speci-fications addressed in §2.4.2.2 and Table 2. Embedded in the loose-fill layer should be impact attenuating mats under high traffic areas, such as under swings, at slide exits, and other places where displacement is likely. Figure 1 provides a visual representation of this information. Older playgrounds that still exist on hard surfacing should be modified to provide appropriate surfacing.

Handbook for Playground Safety

Table 2. Minimum compressed loose-fill surfacing depths

Inches Of (Loose-Fill Material) Protects to Fall Height (feet)

9 Shredded/recycled rubber 10

9 Sand 4

9 Pea Gravel 5

9 Wood mulch (non-CCA) 7

9 Wood chips 10

2.5 Equipment Materials

2.5.1 Durability and finish

• Use equipment that is manufactured and constructed only of materials that have a demonstrated record of durability in a playground or similar setting.

• Finishes, treatments, and preservatives should be selected carefully so that they do not present a health hazard to users.

2.5.2 Hardware

When installed and maintained in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions:

• All fasteners, connectors, and covering devices should not loosen or be removable without the use of tools.

• All fasteners, connectors, and covering devices that are exposed to the user should be smooth and should not be likely to cause laceration, penetration, or present a cloth-ing entanglement hazard (see also §3.2 and Appendix B).

• Lock washers, self-locking nuts, or other locking means should be provided for all nuts and bolts to protect them from detachment.

• Hardware in moving joints should also be secured against unintentional or unauthorized loosening.

• All fasteners should be corrosion resistant and be selected to minimize corrosion of the materials they connect. This is particularly important when using wood treated with ACQ/CBA/CA-B2 as the chemicals in the wood preserva-tive corrode certain metals faster than others.

• Bearings or bushings used in moving joints should be easy to lubricate or be self-lubricating.

• All hooks, such as S-hooks and C-hooks, should be closed (see also §5.3.8.1). A hook is considered closed if there is no gap or space greater than 0.04 inches, about the thick-ness of a dime.

2.5.3 Metals

• Avoid using bare metal for platforms, slides, or steps.

When exposed to direct sunlight they may reach tempera-tures high enough to cause serious contact burn injuries in a matter of seconds. Use other materials that may reduce the surface temperature, such as but not limited to wood, plastic, or coated metal (see also Slides in §5.3.6).

• If bare or painted metal surfaces are used on platforms, steps, and slide beds, they should be oriented so that the surface is not exposed to direct sun year round.

Handbook for Playground Safety

Layer 3: Geotextile cloth

Layer 1: Hard surface (asphalt, concrete, etc.)

Layer 2: 3- to 6-inches of loose fill (e.g., gravel for drainage)

Layer 5: Impact mats under swings

Layer 4: Loose-fill surfacing material

2 Ammoniacal copper quat (ACQ), copper boron azole (CBA), copper azole type B (CA-B), etc.

Figure 1. Installation layers for loose-fill over a hard surface

2.5.4 Paints and finishes

• Metals not inherently corrosion resistant should be paint-ed, galvanized, or otherwise treated to prevent rust.

• The manufacturer should ensure that the users cannot ingest, inhale, or absorb potentially hazardous amounts of preservative chemicals or other treatments applied to the equipment as a result of contact with playground equipment.

• All paints and other similar finishes must meet the current CPSC regulation for lead in paint (0.06% [600ppm] maximum lead by dry weight).3

• Painted surfaces should be maintained to prevent corrosion and deterioration.

• Paint and other finishes should be maintained to prevent rusting of exposed metals and to minimize children play-ing with peeling paint and paint flakes.

• Older playgrounds with lead based paints should be iden-tified and a strategy to control lead paint exposure should be developed. Playground managers should consult the October 1996 report, CPSC Staff Recommendations for Identifying and Controlling Lead Paint on Public Playground Equipment.4

2.5.5 Wood

• Wood should be either naturally rot- and insect-resistant (e.g., cedar or redwood) or should be treated to avoid such deterioration.

• Creosote-treated wood and coatings that contain pesticides should not be used.

2.5.5.1 Pressure-treated wood

A significant amount of older playground wood was pres-sure-treated with chemicals to prevent damage from insects and fungi. Chromated copper arsenate (CCA) was a chemi-cal used for decades in structures (including playgrounds).

Since December 31, 2003, CCA-treated wood is no longer processed for use in playground applications. Other rot- and insect-resistant pressure treatments are available that do not contain arsenic; however, when using any of the new treated wood products, be sure to use hardware that is compatible with the wood treatment chemicals. These chemicals are known to corrode certain materials faster than others.

Existing playgrounds with CCA-treated wood Various groups have made suggestions concerning the appli-cation of surface coatings to CCA-treated wood (e.g., stains and sealants) to reduce a child’s potential exposure to arsenic from the wood surface. Data from CPSC staff and EPA studies suggest that regular (at least once a year) use of an oil- or water-based, penetrating sealant or stain can reduce arsenic migration from CCA-treated wood. Installers, builders, and consumers who perform woodworking opera-tions, such as sanding, sawing, or sawdust disposal, on pres-sure-treated wood should read the consumer information sheet available at the point of sale. This sheet contains important health precautions and disposal information.

When selecting wood products and finishes for public play-grounds, CPSC staff recommends:

• Avoid “film-forming” or non-penetrating stains (latex semi-transparent, latex opaque and oil-based opaque stains) on outdoor surfaces because peeling and flaking may occur later, which will ultimately have an impact on durability as well as exposure to the preservatives in the wood.

• Creosote, pentachlorophenol, and tributyl tin oxide are too toxic or irritating and should not be used as preserva-tives for playground equipment wood.

• Pesticide-containing finishes should not be used.

• CCA-treated wood should not be used as playground mulch.

2.6 Assembly and Installation

• Strictly follow all instructions from the manufacturer when assembling and installing equipment.

• After assembly and before its first use, equipment should be thoroughly inspected by a person qualified to inspect playgrounds for safety.

• The manufacturer’s assembly and installation instructions, and all other materials collected concerning the equip-ment, should be kept in a permanent file.

• Secure anchoring is a key factor to stable installation, and the anchoring process should be completed in strict accor-dance with the manufacturer’s specifications.

Handbook for Playground Safety

3 Title 16, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 1303; Ban of Lead-Containing Paint and Certain Consumer Products Bearing Lead-Containing Paint;

Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC.

4 CPSC Staff Recommendations for Identifying and Controlling Lead Paint on Public Playground Equipment; U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission:

Washington, DC, October 1996.

3. PLAYGROUND HAZARDS

This section provides a broad overview of general hazards that should be avoided on playgrounds. It is intended to raise awareness of the risks posed by each of these hazards.

Many of these hazards have technical specifications and tests for compliance with ASTM F1487 and F2373. Some of these tests are also detailed in Appendix B.

3.1 Crush and Shearing Points

Anything that could crush or shear limbs should not be accessible to children on a playground. Crush and shear points can be caused by parts moving relative to each other or to a fixed part during a normal use cycle, such as a seesaw.

To determine if there is a possible crush or shear point, consider:

• The likelihood a child could get a body part inside the point, and

• The closing force around the point.

Potential crush/shear hazards specific to certain pieces of equipment are identified in §5.3 Major Types of Playground Equipment.

3.2 Entanglement and Impalement

Projections on playground equipment should not be able to entangle children’s clothing nor should they be large enough to impale. To avoid this risk:

• The diameter of a projection should not increase in the direction away from the surrounding surface toward the exposed end (see Figure 2).

• Bolts should not expose more than two threads beyond the end of the nut (see Figure 3).

• All hooks, such as S-hooks and C-hooks, should be closed (see also §5.3.8.1). A hook is considered closed if there is no gap or space greater than 0.04 inches, about the thick-ness of a dime.

– Any connecting device containing an in-fill that com-pletely fills the interior space preventing entry of cloth-ing items into the interior of the device is exempt from this requirement.

• Swings and slides have additional recommendations for projections detailed in §5.3.

• See Appendix B for testing recommendations.

3.2.1 Strings and ropes

Drawstrings on the hoods of jackets, sweatshirts, and other upper body clothing can become entangled in playground equipment, and can cause death by strangulation. To avoid this risk:

• Children should not wear jewelry, jackets or sweatshirts with drawstring hoods, mittens connected by strings through the arms, or other upper body clothing with drawstrings.

• Remove any ropes, dog leashes, or similar objects that have been attached to playground equipment. Children can become entangled in them and strangle to death.

Handbook for Playground Safety

Diameter has increased

Figure 2. Example of a hazardous protrusion that increases in diameter from plane of initial surface and forms an entanglement hazard and may also be an impalement hazard.

Figure 3. Example of a hazardous protrusion that extends more than 2 threads beyond the nut and forms an impalement/laceration hazard and may also be an entanglement hazard.

• Avoid equipment with ropes that are not secured at both ends.

• The following label can be placed near/on slides or other equipment where potential entanglements may occur.

3.3 Entrapment

3.3.1 Head entrapment

Head entrapment is a serious concern on playgrounds, since it could lead to strangulation and death. A child’s head may become entrapped if the child enters an opening either feet first or head first. Head entrapment by head-first entry gen-erally occurs when children place their heads through an opening in one orientation, turn their heads to a different orientation, then are unable to get themselves out. Head entrapment by feet first entry involves children who general-ly sit or lie down and slide their feet into an opening that is large enough to permit their bodies to go through but is not large enough to permit their heads to go through. A part or a group of parts should not form openings that could trap a child’s head. Also, children should not wear their bicycle helmets while on playground equipment. There have been recent head entrapment incidents in which children wearing their bicycle helmets became entrapped in spaces that would not normally be considered a head entrapment.

Certain openings could present an entrapment hazard if the distance between any interior opposing surfaces is greater than 3.5 inches and less than 9 inches. These spaces should be tested as recommended in Appendix B. When one dimension of an opening is within this range, all dimensions of the opening should be considered together to evaluate the possibility of entrapment. Even openings that are low enough for children’s feet to touch the ground can present a risk of strangulation for an entrapped child. (See Figure 4).

Younger children may not have the necessary intellectual ability or motor skills to reverse the process that caused their heads to become trapped, especially if they become scared or panicked.

Handbook for Playground Safety

WARNING

Figure 4. Examples of entrapment below a barrier and between the vertical bars of a barrier.

Children have died when drawstrings on their clothing caught on slides or other playground equipment.

Remove hood and neck drawstrings from children’s clothing before children play on a playground.

Remove scarves and mittens connected through the sleeves.

3.3.2 Angles

Children can become entrapped by angles formed between two sides of playground parts.

• Angles should be greater than 55 degrees, unless one side is horizontal or below horizontal.

• See Figure 5.

• See Appendix B for testing recommendations.

3.4 Sharp Points, Corners, and Edges

Sharp points, corners, or edges on any part of the playground or playground equipment may cut or puncture a child’s skin.

Sharp edges can cause serious lacerations if protective measures are not taken. To avoid the risk of injury from sharp points, corners and edges:

• Exposed open ends of all tubing not resting on the ground or otherwise covered should be covered by caps or plugs that cannot be removed without the use of tools.

• Wood parts should be smooth and free from splinters.

• All corners, metal and wood, should be rounded.

• All metal edges should be rolled or have rounded capping.

• There should be no sharp edges on slides.