Attachment_5_Cape_Hatteras_Cultural_Landscape_Report.pdf

U.S. Department of the Interior - : "S:"

Cape Hatteras National Seashore .._ Manteo, North Carolina

Cultural Resources Southeast Region National Park Service 100 Alabama St. SW Atlanta, GA 30303

(404) 562-3117

Cultural Landscape Report Cape Hatteras Light Station, Cape Hatteras National Seashore Manteo, North Carolina

The cultural landscape report presented here exists in two formats. A printed version is available for study at the park, the Southeastern Regional Office of the National Park Service, and at a variety of other repositories. For more widespread access, this cultural landscape report also exists in a web-based format through ParkNet, the website of the National Park Service. Please visit www.nps.gov for more information.

Cape Hatteras Light Station, Cape Hatteras National Seashore

Cultural Landscape Report

Prepared by Susan Hart Vincent Historic Land Design Charlotte, North Carolina

National Park Service Southeast Regional Office Cultural Resources Division

PLEASE RETURN TO:

TECHNICAL INFORMATION CENTER

DENVERSE~CECENTER

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

Cape Hatteras Light Station, Cape Hatteras National Seashore

Cultural Landscape Report

Recommended by:·-~~~~~~~~~=----------.2~-~b~-~O~'"Jc..___ Actin hief, Cultural Resources Date Sou east Regional Office

Concurred by:_...v-'L.~ ,.~·---___:_,t/,~,F~~=-----'--------.:1t-v/_J...r§_~_3_ ~nte~ ~Date ~ /J Outer Banks Group

Concurred by: __ +-~--'~::..:...:....!~'~£~~:....L..::!~----------=J~~~.z._7..:_~_{).3_ Regio~al Director, Southeast Region Date lv Cultural Landscape Report: Cape Hatteras Light Station

Contents

Figures Foreword Acknowledgments

Introduction

Management Summary Historical Summary Scope of Work and Methodology Study Boundaries Summary of Findings

Site History

Pre-European Landscape European Settlement Colonial Period The Outer Banks- Federal Period (1776-1865) 1803 Cape Hatteras Light Station The Outer Banks - Post-Civil War to Early 20th Century (1866-1935) 1870 Cape Hatteras Light Station Park Development Period (1935 to 1942) Mission 66 (1955-1966) 1984 General Management Plan 1989 Cape Hatteras Protection Alternatives/

Design Concept Plan/Environmental Assessment 1999 Relocation and Site Development Existing Conditions

Analysis of Integrity of Historical Significance

Period of Significance The National Register Nomination New National Historic Landmark Boundary Evaluation of Integrity Amendments to the National Register

Treatment Recommendations

General Recommendations Cape Hatteras Light Station Old Site Cape Hatteras Light Station Existing Site

References Appendix vii ix xi

National Park Service v vi Cultural landscape Report: Cape Hatteras light Station

Figures

1 Location Map 3 2 Cape Hatteras Light Station Survey, November 29, 1854. 8 3 Nicholson's Sketch of the Old Tower, Cape Hatteras, NC, October 24, 1870. 9 4 Physiographic changes in the Cape Hatteras area, 1852 - 1872. 10 5 H. Bamber's 1893 Survey of Station Boundaries and Shore Line. 13 6 H. Bamber's 1893 Survey of Cape Hatteras Light Station. 15 7 1893 View of Light Station and 1803 Tower Ruins. 17 8 Cape Hatteras State Park, N.C. SP-6, 1937 Location and Plot Plan. 19 9 North view of Lighthouse and CCC brush fences and grass plantings, ca. 1935. 20 10 CCC grass planting, ca. 1935. 22 11 Cape Hatteras Light Station Historic Period (1870-1936). 23 12 Sandbagging efforts in 1968 to protect the lighthouse. 24 13 CCC grasses surrounding lighthouse, ca. 1950. 26 14 Northeast view of move corridor and old lighthouse site, May 2001. 33 15 Existing Conditions Plan. 35 16 View of Keepers' Quarters and surrounding vegetation, Spring 2001. 37 17 Lighthouse Fence Details. 45 18 Keepers' Quarters Fence and Walk Details. 46 19 General Treatment Recommendations. 48 20 Lighthouse Complex Treatment Recommendations. 49

Figure Credits

Figure 1: Park Archives; Figure 2: Holland, 1968; Figure 3: Park Archives; Figure 4: Brown, 1957, Plate IV; Figures 5-9: Park Archives; Figure 10: From "Summary of Work Done on Cape Hatteras Lighthouse Area" in Park Archives; Figures 11-13: Park Archives; Figures 14-20: By Author.

National Park Service vii viii-Cultural Landscape Report: Cape Hatteras Light Station

Foreword

We are pleased to make available this cultural landscape report as part of our ongoing effort to provide comprehensive documentation for the historic structures and landscapes of National Park Service units in the Southeast Region. Many individuals and institutions contributed to the successful completion of this project. We would especially like to thank Cape Hatteras National Seashore Superintendent Larry Belli and his staff for their support and contributions to this work. Thanks also to Lucy Lawliss, Lead, NPS Park Cultural Landscapes Program, for her knowledgeable guidance throughout the project.

Finally, we would like to recognize the labor and dedication of Susan Hart Vincent, author of this report. We hope that the study will be a useful tool for park management and for others interested in the history and significance of the cultural landscape of the Cape Hatteras Light Station.

Dan Scheidt Chief, Cultural Resources Division Southeast Regional Office

National Park Service lx x Cultural Landscape Report: Cape Hatteras Light Station

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to acknowledge the cooperation and assistance of several individuals associated with this project. I thank Cape Hatteras National Seashore Superintendent Larry Belli for his support and enthusiasm for the project. Chief of Resource Management Steve Harrison and Cultural Resources Specialist Doug Stover were invaluable in their assistance to my research at the park's archives. Nickki Ernst, GIS technician, was helpful in tracking down specific maps and other materials needed at the last minute. Gary Hurelle and Paul Cloyd, of the NPS's Denver Service Center, provided base maps of the light station's old and new sites.

I am also grateful to Lucy Lawliss, Lead, Park Cultural Landscapes Program, NPS, Washington, D.C., whose review and comments of this document were extremely valuable. Finally, I thank the Georgia Trust for Historic Preservation, Inc., whose cooperative agreement with the National Park Service has made this project possible.

National Park Service xi xil Cultural landscape Repo-rt: Cape Hatteras light Station

Introduction

Management Summary The Cape Hatteras Light Station Cultural Landscape Report (CLR) analyzes and provides treatment recommendations for the Cape Hatteras National Seashore, North Carolina (the park), to preserve and interpret the light station's historic resources at both the old and new sites.

This report

1) examines the integrity of the historic resources associated with the Cape Hatteras Light Station,

2) makes specific landscape treatment recommendations for individual historic resources,

3) addresses the use and management of historic resources to support the goals of the park's interpretive program, and

4) specifies the overall treatment of the historic landscape to accommodate the non-historic resources (visitor center, access roads, parking area, etc.) necessary to manage a site open to the public.

Historical Summary Since colonial times, the dangerous waters off North Carolina's coast have besieged sailors.

Extending fourteen miles offshore, the shallow, shifting sands of the Diamond Shoals have caused the demise of many who sailed near shore, the common practice before modern navigational instruments. Sailing south, the most favorable current was the Labrador Current, which hugged the shoreline of North America. Upon return, sailors chose the Gulf Stream, which ran north just outside the Labrador Current.

At Diamond Shoals, however, the two currents flow extremely close to each other. Those sailing south held fast to the shore to avoid the northerly current. Faced with shallow shoals extending far into sea, and the narrow current channels, many vessels ran aground, or, worse, became victims of violent storms. Known today as the "Graveyard of the Atlantic," the Outer Banks is responsible for approximately 6oo shipwrecks.

In 1803, the first Cape Hatteras lighthouse was built to aid navigation around the infamous Diamond Shoals. It was replaced in 1870 by a taller structure that contained the latest first order lens. Associated with the lighthouse were several buildings and dwellings to accommodate the light keepers and their families.

In 1935, the Light Station was abandoned by the Commerce Department and was transferred to the National Park Service (NPS). It became part of the Cape Hatteras National Seashore in 1937· At that time, encroaching shorelines compelled the NPS to take protective measures to save the lighthouse. For the next sixty years a variety of methods including steel groins, beach re nourishment, and artificial dunes were installed.

In 1935-36, the construction of artificial dunes by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and Works Progress Administration (WPA) provided thirty years of protection by halting the westward movement of the shoreline.

Despite all these attempts, storms and constant scouring eventually destroyed the dunes, and the NPS began anew in 1980 to determine a strategy to protect this valuable resource. As a result of this effort, in 1999 the International Chimney Corporation, of Buffalo, New York, moved the entire light station 2,500 feet southwest to a new site approximately 1,6oo feet from the shoreline.

The Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, at 193 feet from the base to the top of the lantern roof, is the tallest lighthouse in the United States, and the second

National Park Service 1

INTRODUCTION

tallest in the world. It is a National Historic Landmark (NHL) and is recognized by millions of Americans. It stands as a regional symbol of North Carolina's Outer Banks) and a national symbol of America's maritime history.

Scope of Work and Methodology This document is the result of a limited investigation of the light station site during the U.S. Lighthouse Service period (1850 to 1936) and the NPS period (1937 to the present). The report

1) examines the conditions of the old and new sites during the period of significance (1870 to 1935) and provides the management treatments necessary to achieve a similar setting)

2) studies the sites' natural and cultural resources, and

3) re-evaluates the existing NHL boundaries in light of the move and the treatment recommendations provided in this document.

Primary sources for investigating the Cape Hatteras Light Station were historical drawings) maps) period photographs, aerial photographs, and park master plans. Existing park documentation includes the park's 1938 Prospectus, Cape Hatteras National Seashore; the 1939 Master Plan; the 1966 Master Plan; the 1984 GMPIDCP!Amended EA; the 1978 Cape Hatteras Light Station District Nomination; the 1978 Status Report for Cape Hatteras; the 1986 Report on the Preparation of the Comprehensive Design Keepers Quarters Landscape Plan for the Lighthouse, Cape Hatteras National Seashore; the 1989 Cape Hatteras Lighthouse Complex Protection Alternatives, DCPIEA; and the 1998 Cape Hatteras Light Station National Historic Landmark Nomination. Other primary sources reviewed were natural resource management reports including the 1936 Bi-Monthly Narrative Progress Reports for Cape Hatteras State Park) vegetation studies, engineering studies, and archeological reports. Secondary sources included local

2 Cultural Landscape Report: Cape Hatteras Light Station histories of Dare County and the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse. In addition to documentary research, site visits and park staff interviews were conducted.

For purposes of clarity, the CLR's use of the term "light station" will refer to all structures associated with, and including, the lighthouse. Additional terms used for the lighthouse itself include "tower" and "light." Also, the name of the historic dirt road leading to the lighthouse from 1803 until

ca. 1960 is not known. For identification purposes, it will be called the "lighthouse road" or "lighthouse trace" throughout this document.

Study Boundaries The Cape Hatteras Light Station is located in Dare County, North Carolina, within the Cape Hatteras National Seashore on Hatteras Island, one of a string of barrier islands known as the Outer Banks. These islands are constantly subject to the forces of wind and ocean currents that cause sand erosion and accretion, most dramatically during hurricanes and winter storms.

The park's authorized boundary includes 30)319 acres and covers approximately eighty miles of shoreline along the islands of Bodie, Hatteras) and Ocracoke. Located just above Cape Hatteras on Hatteras Island) the Study Area boundary includes the Light Station's old and new sites, the move corridor) associated parking areas and park facilities) and the 1936 CCC camp south of the lighthouse.

Summary of Findings The Cape Hatteras Lighthouse stands today as testimony of man's determination to maintain a light at Cape Hatteras in the midst of one of the nation's most dynamic environments. For zoo years shifting sands, flooding) overwash) and high winds have been met with the most advanced engineering of the time. Such response has led to the recent relocation of the complex to a new site.

FIGURE 1. Location Map. Cape Hatteras Light Station, Cape Hatteras National Seashore, Outer Banks, North Carolina.

National Park Service 3

Today, the lighthouse setting represents the later part of the historic period (1870-1936) when the Civilian Conservation Corps built dunes and planted them extensively with native vegetation.

The existing shrub thickets and pine/oak woodland are a direct result of those protection methods. The CLR recommends a preservation/ rehabilitation strategy to return the lighthouse complex landscape to this later part of the site's period of significance as it provides a direct link to

4 Cultural-Landscape Report: Cape Hatteras Light Station the site's environmental history and the many efforts to protect the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse.

Furthermore, this strategy allows for future endorsements of significant events that are associated with efforts to protect the tower. It links the historic period's earlier efforts to the 1999 move as part of the lighthouse's ongoing history.

Site History

Pre-European Landscape Native American groups occupied North Carolina's barrier islands as early as 100 B.C.E.

The English encountered their descendants, the Poteskeets, Corees and Croatons, in the 16th century. The Indians occupied villages on high ground amidst maritime forests. The availability of freshwater, fish, and wild game was also a factor in determining village locations on the islands.

Three aboriginal occupations were found on Hatteras Island. Areas of present -day Buxton, Frisco, and Hatteras Village now occupy former Indian towns. The "Hatteras Indians," known by this name by the 173os, were members of the Croaton Tribe and lived in a village on the Albermarle Sound side of present Buxton. They grew maize, beans, and curcubits, to supplement their diets of fish, shellfish, and deer. 1

Vegetation Beaches, dunes, sand ridges, sand flats, ponds, and salt marshes made up the barrier island topography. Distribution of native plants was dependent upon several factors, including moisture, salinity, elevation, and wind exposure.

The earliest accounts (q98) describe Hatteras Island as covered with evergreen trees, including live oak (Quercus virginiana), pine (Pinus sp. ), and cedar Uuniper sp.). These species were primarily found on old dunes and sandy ridges located inland and on the sound side of the islands. Here, climax maritime forests grew, protected from salt spray and high wind.

Interspersed and at lower elevations were sand flats--open, wind-swept sandy areas of considerable acreage. Depending upon the

1. Louis Torres, Historic Resource Study of Cape Hatteras National Seashore. (Denver: Branch of Planning, Southeast/Southwest Team, NPS, 1985), 16, 27.

availability of moisture and protection from salt spray, the sand flats varied in their vegetative content. Inland areas were dominated by trees, shrubs, and woody vines such as yaupon (!lex vomitoria), wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera), bayberry (M. pennsylvanica), red bay (Persea borbonia), live oak, and pepper vine ( Ampelopsis arborea). Moist sand flats included narrow-leaf cattail (Typha angustifolia), smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora), and black rush (]uncus roemerianus).

These freshwater species, along with beggar ticks (Bidens sp.), pennywort (Hydrocotyle sp.), and black willow (Salix nigra), also grew along the edges of creeks and ponds.

Dunes varied from hills of shifting sands with little or no vegetation, to those where grasses had taken hold. American beach grass ( Ammophila breviligulata) and sea oats (Uniola paniculata) were especially suited to this environment.

On the sound side, salt marshes were dominated by smooth cordgrass, saltmeadow cordgrass (Spartina patens), black rush, and marsh elder (Iva frutescens). 2 A more extensive list of native plants can be found in the appendix.

European Settlement The first European to see the coast of North Carolina was probably Giovanni Verrazano, a Florentine, who sailed the eastern coast of North America in 1524. Verrazano described the barrier islands as an "isthmus" that separated the "Eastern Ocean" from the "Western Ocean." He described the land feature as one mile wide and 200 miles in length.

2. Clair Brown, Vegetation of the Outer Banks of North Carolina. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1957), 3.

National Park Service 5

SITE HISTORY

The next Europeans to sail to these islands were sent by Englishman Sir Walter Raleigh, whose expeditions to the New World are well known.

His first attempt failed immediately, but his second try at Roanoke Island, entrusted to John White, in 1587, survived tenuously for a few years.

Within a few months of landing, White returned to England for much-needed supplies. When he returned to Roanoke Island in 1590, the colonists had abandoned the site, leaving the mysterious carving "Croatoan" on a post at the entrance to the palisade.

The Roanoke Island colonists adopted Indian names of landmarks, such as "hatterask," referring to Pea and Hatteras Islands. "Croatoan" referenced a site west of Cape Hatteras on the sound side where an Indian village existed.

Unfortunately, White failed to persuade his ship's captain to search additional sites and they sailed away, never learning the colonists' fate.

Colonial Period A Carolina Charter issued by King Charles II of England in 1663 brought settlers to the mainland along the western shore of Albermarle Sound.

The first to move to the barrier islands came from Virginia to Collington and Roanoke Islands around 1700.

As the English population grew and spread to other islands, settlers came in frequent contact with local Indians. In 1709, approximately forty Indians lived near present-day Buxton in a village known then as "Indian Town" or "Cape Hatteras Indian Town." English retaliation for an Indian attack in 1733 reduced the Hatteras Indian population to a handful. From then on the remainder lived in great poverty. By 1761, the tribe had moved to the mainland and was absorbed into English culture.3

Land Use The barrier islands were excellent locations for stock grazing. The small islands prevented the

3. Torres, 17.

6 Cultural landscape Report: Cape Hatteras light Station need for fencing, and marsh grasses were good sources of stock food. By 1776, all the islands were grazed by livestock, including sheep, horses, cattle, and hogs. In addition to meat, settlers also maintained small vegetable gardens to supplement their diet. Many hunted waterfowl and fished as additional sources of food.

During the American Revolution, British soldiers frequently raided the islands for livestock. The easy access and defenseless inhabitants made such raids easy. For a short period during the war, however, a militia group protected the islands and on one occasion turned back a British landing party intent on taking cattle.

Maritime Industries One of the earliest occupations in the Outer Banks, besides stock raising, was piloting. In 1734 the colonial government appointed and licensed pilots to guide ships through Ocracoke and Roanoke Inlets. Pilots and their families in q66 were provided with land that later became the village of Ocracoke.

Other families in the Outer Banks supplemented their livelihood by scavenging. Whale oil and whale bones were extracted from whales that washed up on shore. In addition, locals scavenged shipwrecked cargo and timbers from wrecks off shore. By 1700, these were primary occupations.

Oral accounts of pirating and smuggling confirm a well-established practice in the 18th century, especially around Currituck and Okracoke Inlets.

The infamous Edward Teach, also known as Blackbeard, terrorized the area in the early 18th century. Such a dangerous reputation as that attributed to the barrier islands was a large commercial disadvantage. Not only did the threat of pirates exist, but treacherous waters also created mayhem for ships traveling along the colony's coast.

Hydrology/Topography Reports of changing shorelines appeared early in the 18th century. New Currituck Inlet opened in 1728, causing the loss or closing of Old Currituck Inlet by 1731. Hatteras Inlet, continually accreting sand, closed in 1755· Ocracoke Inlet, still dangerous and tricky, remained the main channel of supplies into the colony.

Circulation The first English homesteads appeared on the sound side of the islands with enclosed gardens and yards to keep out livestock. Located in wooded tracts, or in hammocks, all had access to the sound for transportation. Rowboats and canoes were the primary means of travel.

The Outer Banks • Federal Period (1776-1865)

The Outer Banks Through most of the 18th century, the Outer Banks were part of Hyde County, formed in 1775. In 1870, however, Dare County was created and included the barrier islands and part of the mainland.

Land Use. Bankers continued to live primarily on the sound side of the islands, protected from high winds and floodwaters. Population was sparse.

The 1850 census showed a population of only 661 inhabitants, including 106 slaves, in the Cape Hatteras area.

All were self-sufficient, mastering the skills of mariner, farmer, stockman, carpenter, boat builder, fisherman, and hunter. Bankers allowed their horses, sheep, cattle, and goats to roam freely among the freshwater grasses and woodlands. They raised Indian corn, sweet potatoes, and other vegetables in small garden plots. In addition, fish and waterfowl brought protein to the table.

Primary occupations remained in fishing and stock raising. Most fishing occurred on a small scale until the 185os when ice became available, and a local market developed.

Piloting was also an important occupation. Ships traveling to and from North Carolina's main coast

SITE HISTORY

had to negotiate the ever-changing inlets. Over the century, some were closed to large ships due to sand accretion. For example, the Roanoke Inlet closed to commercial traffic in 18u and Currituck Inlet closed in 1828.

Other times new inlets would be created by storms. Hatteras and Oregon Inlets opened during the same storm on September 8, 1846.

Continuous scouring made Hatteras Inlet an important byway by mid-century. Given these constant changes, the guidance of knowledgeable pilots was a necessity.

Other occupations defined the self-sufficiency of the Bankers. Harnessing the area's wind resources, they milled corn brought from the mainland in exchange for yaupon leaves and salted mullet. Three, possibly four, windmills were located on Hatteras Island. Shipbuilding grew out of the abundant oak and cedar forest near Bodie Island and Roanoke Island. Wrecking was another occupation, although much of this work involved sacrifice on the part of some and opportunity on the part of others. The saving and care of shipwrecked sailors and cargoes fell upon the inhabitants as maritime trade increased.

Many regarded the task as an obligation to assist those in danger. Others took advantage of the goods washed ashore for their personal gain.

The isolation of the Outer Banks soon succumbed to tourism. Lowcountry planters and townsfolk came to Nags Head and Ocracoke to escape the summer diseases of the mainland. Small cottages were built at Nags Head on the leeward side around 1830 and Ocracoke built a hotel in 1838.4

Aids to Navigation. The U.S. Congress recognized the importance of navigation protection in 1789 when it was reported that only eleven lighthouses operated along the east coast.

Two stood in the South, on Tybee Island, Georgia, and on Morris Island near the entrance to Charleston harbor, South Carolina. Of particular

4. Gary S. Dunbar, Historical Geography of the North Carolina Outer Banks. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1 958), 38.

National Park Service 7 urgency was protection around the treacherous Diamond Shoals.

The Department of the Treasury was authorized to administer all aids to navigation and appropriated funds for the construction of lighthouses. Among them, Shell Castle (1798) on Ocracoke Island, and the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse (1803) were built. Shell Castle Lighthouse was abandoned in 1820 and another one was built in 1823 near Ocracoke village. The Bodie Island Lighthouse was built in 1848 just south of Oregon Inlet.

Fifty-five lighthouses were constructed in the country by 1820. This figure grew to 204 by 1837.

In 1852, the Department of the Treasury established the Lighthouse Board to govern all lighthouse establishments. That year 331 iighthouses stood around the nation's coastline.

1803 Cape Hatteras Light Station

Land Purchase In April 1794, Congress allocated $44,ooo for the construction of two light stations on the Outer Banks--Shell Castle on Ocracoke Island and Cape Hatteras on Hatteras Island. Four acres were purchased for $50 from William Jennett, Mary Jennett, Jabez Jennett, Aquilla Jennett, and Christian Jennett (designated guardian of minors under twenty-one years of age) on October 26, 1798, for the Cape Hatteras Light Station.5

Several years later, an additional forty acres were purchased for land to build a new keeper's quarters, the first one having been in disrepair.

Pharoah Farrow was paid $2oo on July 21,1828, for the deed, which described the property line as:

Beginning at Elizabeth Williams' line on the Cape Creek, and running with a line westward to a cedar stake, thence southwardly with

5. The sale was registered in the Registrar's Office of Currituck County on February 28, 1801.

8 ·Cultural-Landscape Report: Cape Hatteras Light Station

FIGURE 2. Cape Hatteras Light Station Survey of November 29 1854 showing the 4-acre original tract and the 1828 40:acre tract, as found in Holland, 1968.

another of said Elizabeth's lines to Jacob Farrow's line, thence East with said Jacob Farrow's line to the Cape Creek and from thence with said Elizabeth Williams' lines to the beginning.6

Topography/Hydrology Eighteenth -century documentation reveals astonishing topographical changes taking place in the area of the Cape Hatteras Light. The 1854 survey (fig. 2) depicted a long dune line east of the lighthouse that paralleled the beach. In view of Nicholson's sketch (fig. 3), it appears the lighthouse stood atop this line of dunes, with the flat barren beach to the east.

However, dramatic topographic and hydrologic changes took place near the lighthouse through the next twenty years. In 1852, a narrow linear pond stretching east-west lay at the western edge

6. A survey of the property has not been found.

Ulustratlon No. 1 oa.e 'f'•WC• • CAN .. ,.., ... •.c . OCW. &f ,,_

.lf<tipi .,.h<llllliW ...... ....,_, '•••' ,. 11•-.A. <~•,Jh• .JII.,;-. ~ o/ .. ~ •• ,.....ffV

FIGURE 3. Nicholson's Sketch of the Old Tower, Cape Hatteras, NC, October 24, 1870, showing the height of the original tower and the 1854 addition.

of the light station. Another north-south pond ran parallel to the lighthouse road approximately one-half mile to the north. This pond may have been associated with Cape Creek, the eastern boundary of the station property (formerly Farrow's) that drained north to the Pamlico Sound. By 1872, the north-south pond had moved east and enlarged, leaving a thin piece of land between it and the ocean. The linear east-west pond also appears to have enlarged (fig. 4).

At the same time, the shoreline was moving westward. As early as 1810 the sand hill at the base of the lighthouse was blowing away and its foundations were exposed. The problem persisted as late as 1850 when a board fence was erected around the base, four feet from the wall.

The center was filled with brushwood. By 1872, beach erosion had claimed approximately 1,8oo feet in front of the tower.

Structures Cape Hatteras Lighthouse. The 18o3lighthouse was a ninety-foot brown sandstone and brick octagonal tower. It was built by Henry Dearborn, SITE HISTORY a former Congressman from Massachusetts. Built at a time of limited technology, the structure quickly proved inadequate.

First, the significance of recognizing a light tower by day, or a tower's "day mark," had never been considered. Thus, the tower was not painted and could not be discerned from the sea. At night, the twelve-foot lantern was visible, at best, for only eighteen miles. Finally, by 1834, the lantern was in such poor condition as to require replacement.

The reflectors were changed in 1845, and again in 1848 to strengthen the beacon to 20 miles.

A letter, dated July 1851, from Lieutenant David D.

Porter, U.S.N., commanding the mail steamer Georgia summarized the issue:

Hatteras light, the most important on our coast, ... [is], without doubt, the worst light in the world. Cape Hatteras is the point made by all vessels going to the south, and also coming from that direction; the current of the Gulf stream runs so close to the outer point of the shoals that vessels double as close round the breakers as possible, to avoid its influence.

The only guide they have is the light, to tell them when up [sic] with the shoals; but I have always had so little confidence in [Cape Hatteras Lighthouse) that I have been guided by the lead, without the use of which, in fact, no vessel should pass Hatteras. The first nine trips I made I never saw Hatteras light at all, though frequently passing in sight of the breakers and when I did see it I could not tell it from a steamer's light, excepting the steamer's lights are much brighter. It has improved much latterly, but is still a wretched light.7

In 1854, Congress appropriated $1s,ooo for refitting the light and raising the tower to 150 feet.

The addition was made of brick and housed a first order fresnel lens. At the same time the tower was painted white for the first seventy feet and red for the remainder. The red and white day mark would improve sailors' ability to see the tower during the morning and afternoon hours.

7. F. Ross Hoi land, A History of the Cape Hatteras Light Station, Cape Hatteras National Seashore, North Carolina. (NPS, Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation, September 30, 1968), 53.

National Park Service 9

CHANQU IN YIGETATION

AND l'tfYIIOGIWiilf IN TIC

CAllE .-TTIIUa AIIQ

FIGURE 4. Physiographic changes in the Cape Hatteras area, 1852 - 1872.

Oil Vault. Dearborn also built an oil vault near the tower. It was twenty by twelve feet and covered with a shed. Inside, each of the nine cedar cisterns contained one hundred gallons of whale oil. 8 Within a year, the cisterns were considered too small and were replaced with larger ones capable of holding a total of 2ooo gallons of oil.9

Keeper's House. The first keeper's house was a two-story wood frame dwelling. It stood thirty four by sixteen feet and was built in r8oo. The location is unknown. Dearborn sunk a well "at a convenient Distance" from the house.

Unfortunately, this property was not maintained and was in poor condition by r827. 10 When additional land was purchased in 1828, a new keeper's dwelling was built.U Details ofthe

8. Holland, 130.

9. Holland, 19.

10. Holland, 130.

11. Holland, 37.

10 Cultural Landscape Report: Cape Hatteras Light Station second structure and how long it stood are presently not known.

Double Keepers' Quarters. With additional land available, a larger dwelling was built in 1854· This two-story wooden structure was painted white and contained six rooms to house two, sometimes three, assistant keepers and their families. Two attached kitchens flanked the structure. A double privy, brick cistern, and other storage buildings that appear in later surveys were probably built at this time.

The 1854 survey in figure 2 illustrates the quarters north of the lighthouse and within the forty-acre tract purchased in r828. Although not shown in the survey, a smokehouse may have been built along with other necessary outbuildings.'2

12. Holland, 140. Holland does not cite his source for this information.

Circulation Water transportation persisted throughout the 19th century with the use of shad boats, Carolina sharpies, canoes, and dugouts. Also, ferry services were provided across the inlets. On land, sandy trails followed high ground from village to village, and by 1865 a dirt road connected Hatteras Inlet with Loggerhead Inlet. Bankers traversed these difficult routes with carts drawn by horses or oxen. The best routes, however, were along the beaches at low tide. Here, horse- or ox-drawn beach carts, or two-wheeled buggies, moved more quickly.

Vegetation The 18o3light station area was covered in maritime forest. 13 This vegetation disappeared over the course of the century, however, with much of the wood lost to salt spray or cut for shipbuilding. Vegetation losses exposed the landscape to more wind, shifting sand, and salt spray. By 1870, an open windy landscape of sand, beach grass, and shrub thickets existed.

Views In the early 18oos, the lighthouse was visible from .

the beach for miles. Interior views within the light station, however, were probably limited. Sight distances improved once trees were removed and existing vegetation died from salt and wind exposure.

Civil War Period Confederate forts were built on the Outer Banks to protect the ocean trade routes of the South- Fort Oregon at Oregon Inlet near Roanoke Island, Fort Ocracoke near Ocracoke Inlet on Beacon Island, and Forts Hatteras and Clark near Hatteras Inlet on Hatteras Island. The Hatteras forts were located ten miles south of the light .

station.

Hatteras Inlet, open for only fifteen years before the outbreak of the Civil War, was the deepest and most stable. From there, Confederate privateers raided ships bound for northern ports in the summer of 1861. That same year Confederate

13. Holland, 7.

SITE HISTORY

soldiers removed the Cape Hatteras lighthouse lantern before Union soldiers took control of the inlet. The Yankees replaced the lantern and were garrisoned at Forts Clarke and Hatteras for the remainder of the warThe Outer Banks- Post Civil War to Early 20th Century (1866-1935)

The Outer Banks Land Use. Approximately 1,ooo to 1,500 people lived on Hatteras Island by 187o.14 Ice, for packing and storing, became widely available at this time and caused commercial fishing to become an important industry.

In the early decades of the 2oth century private clubs were established for seasonal hunting of migratory fowl. Pea Island Hunt Club was established as early as 1909. The Phipps family and other wealthy northerners bought land on the South Banks in the 192os.1S

Circulation With sandy trails still unimproved at the turn of the 20th century, travel by boat remained the preferred means of transportation. But the 20th century brought improved transportation options for the island inhabitants. Cars arriving from the mainland in 1919 on private ferries could drive on the beaches.Z6 The first hard-surfaced road was built in the 1920s on Roanoke Island. During the same period, a bridge from Roanoke Island to Nags Head was constructed. Shortly thereafter, the Wright Memorial Bridge, built in 1930, connected Point Harbor across the Currituck Sound with Kitty Hawk and Nags Head. In addition, ferries from island to island began running in the 1930s.

Aids to Navigation The federal government launched two programs in the late 19th century that would battle the problem of inadequate aids to navigation at North Carolina's Outer Banks. The first was to construct a series of lighthouses that would have sufficient power in their beacons and be constructed close

14. Holland, 89.

15. Jim Senter, email correspondence to Doug Stover, CAHA Cultural Resource Specialist, July 2, 2002.

16. Dunbar, 62.

National Park Service 11 enough that ships could follow one after the other. On Cape Hatteras, three modern brick lighthouses were built--the new Cape Hatteras Lighthouse (1870 ), the Bodie Island Lighthouse (1872), and the Currituck Lighthouse (1875). Each was given distinct markings for day identification and different sequences of flashing lights and intervals between flashes for night identification.

The second federal program was the construction of life saving stations along the coastline.

Permanent crews were hired to save lives.

Between Virginia and Cape Lookout twenty-five stations were built. On Hatteras Island were Chicamacomico (1874) and Little Kinnakeet (1874), both located north of the light station.

1870 Cape Hatteras Light Station

Over the period from 1867-1870, Congress appropriated $167,000 for the construction of a new light station. Located 1,6oo feet from the shore, the light was put into operation on December 16, 1870.

Boundaries and Station Layout The 1870 light station was surveyed in 1893 by H.

Bamber for the Office of the Lighthouse Boar (fig. s).

The survey showed the boundaries of the reservation enclosing a square area of approximately 40 acres. How the property holdings changed from forty-four acres to forty acres is not known. Bamber's boundaries are incongruous with the 1854 map in figure 2.

The new light was constructed 6oo feet north of the 1803 tower and 370 feet southeast of the double keepers' dwelling. Both keepers' dwellings were oriented slightly east of south and a connecting walk led to the lighthouse. A natural freshwater pond surrounded the two houses on the north, west, and southwest.

12 Cultural Landscape Report: Cape Hatteras Light Station

Topography/Hydrology A good description of the new tower location was found in the 1869 Annual Report of the Lighthouse Board:

The Site selected bear [sic] north by east 6oo feet distant from the old tower, and is therefore as near it as well could be. The sailing directions will be very slightly affected if at all. It is on the general level of the beach, and therefore is secure from the destructive action of the wind, which has always so seriously threatened the foundations of the old tower, and to counteract which very heavy expense was incurred through many years.

The site is also above the highest level of the sea and so far removed from the water line as to render it safe from encroachment of the sea."17

Despite the optimism of this report, the shoreline erosion near the lighthouse was increasing. The 1893 Bamber survey (fig. 5) indicated the water had moved to within approximately 1,300 feet of the new tower. In addition, photographs of the same period show a flat, open sandy beach south and southwest of the tower. In 1919, a low sand ridge, remnant of an old dune line, ran parallel with the shore about sao feet east of the light.

Soon after, the ocean overcame the dunes and washed to within 300 feet of the lighthouse.

Federal efforts to protect the tower began in 1930 when 900 linear feet of interlocking sheetpile groins were installed along the beach by the Lighthouse Service. A few years later, storm driven water moved within one hundred feet of the structure. In 1933, more steel groins were installed.

Other water features included the freshwater pond that wrapped around the two dwellings on the north and west sides. The water varied in depth but was generally less than two and one half feet deep. The bottom was hard and occasionally the pond would dry up.

17. "History of Cape Hatteras Light Station, North Carolina." (February 1954), Park Archives.

Unpublished Report, n.p.

CAPE H.c'\ .. T'l' ERAS

JrutJ ~i Lt91tl i'orur.

LIGHT :-lTATlON, ~·"•l'l.r'<lra.-d.... . ..... .................. 'lJ<I.fwiJ! MZ& /)rtf,, o/ ligltt ,. .

XC.

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n. ..... m•x~ .z.o,.,w.u,. •rut .Datum, Plan. w mtD'IuiL A<oo:'o:

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FIGUREs. H. Bamber's 1893 Survey of Station Boundaries and Shore Line.

National Park Service 13

Structures 1803 Lighthouse. The old lighthouse was destroyed on February 16, 1881, after the new lighthouse was constructed. It was reported to be in danger of collapsing in the next heavy storm.

What happened to the tower rubble is not known;

however, the ruins of the base remained visible for one hundred years.

1870 Lighthouse. The new lighthouse was built of brick with an octagonal pink granite base. It was 193 feet tall and had a focal plain at 191 feet. A first order flashing lens with pedestal was installed. In 1873 the Lighthouse Board approved the official designation of two black and two white spiraling bands to mark the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse by day. The tower was painted the same year.

Outbuildings near the tower included a small coal bin (1884) and a small wooden fuel shed ( ca.1888) that stored empty oil cans.1s

Temporary structures associated with construction of the light station were located near the tower. They included a seventy-five-by eighteen-foot cement house, a sixteen-by twenty-three-foot superintendent's quarters, a fifty-by-eighteen-foot men's quarters, and a twelve-by-fourteen-foot kitchen. All structures were removed to Bodie Island when work was completed at Cape Hatteras.

Oil House. A fifteen-by-thirteen-foot brick oil house with a tin roof was built around 1892. It was located 65 feet north of the light tower. Prior to that time, oil was stored in the base of the lighthouse and in the wooden fuel shed. It is not known what happened to the 1803 oil vault.

Double Keepers' Dwelling. In 1892, the double keepers' dwelling was expanded to make more room for the assistant keepers' families. The west facade was extended sixteen feet and a second chimney was added. The flanking kitchen was moved behind the dwelling near the northwest corner. The back porch was also enlarged and enclosed. By 1893 the site also contained a

18. Holland, 99.

14 Cultural Landscape Report: Cape Hatteras Light Station summer kitchen, three storage structures, a cistern, and double privy (fig. 6). All structures were painted white.

A 1916 drawing, commissioned by the Office of the Lighthouse Inspector, Fifth District, in Baltimore, Maryland, proposed removal of the three storage houses. It also recommended replacement of the double privy with a double storage structure and separate single privies.19 The privies were constructed by 1919 and it appears that the storage structure was erected shortly afterwards. A second cistern on the west side of the house was also constructed by 1920. The single storage unit east of the privies remained.

Principal Keeper's Dwelling. Another dwelling was constructed in 1871 and assigned to the principal keeper and his family. The house was a two-story brick and wood frame structure. It was painted red until around 1933.

A summer kitchen (also painted red), a brick cistern, and privy were also constructed. In 1892, two wooden frame storage buildings were added to the site. One was newly constructed, and the other, built in 1888, was moved from the tower area. Both were painted white and located in the north yard of the dwelling.

By 1916, one of the storehouses had been removed.

The cistern, summer kitchen, privy, and one storehouse remained.

Fencing. The 1870 lighthouse was enclosed by a four-foot-high, octagonal, iron, picket fence. The fence was secured with a base of eight rectangular granite stones. Constructed to keep out free ranging cattle and hogs, the fence remained in place until around 1920 when it was removed. The Bureau of Lighthouses constructed a new fence of white concrete posts and metal railing, approximately three to four feet high. The original granite stones formed the same octagonal base.

19. 1916 Plat of Cape Hatteras Light Station, November 24, 1916. (Office of the Lighthouse Inspector, Fifth District, Baltimore, MD.) Park Archives.

CAPE HATTERAS

LIGHT STATION,

N.C.

..... 1893 by H.Dvnb-r

\ . -I - -r.:.:::::::.~·.:'::::'.::. ~ .. \ ~ •

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jw •..,. --- -

81PLAN'A'T10N •.

T•Tu,...,,.,brtelf,, lui5lt.t/o. ~ foctd plane J90.t'.

D•li>'U:.\ dwelling. M:i>&Jl• roe(.n.,&kth <f'flccrtd.:!

D' • 'll-i,.ts d~~~"' 7'00/. briGit. pie,. jhundalic'N.

C •ll,.icJt:, t:ioKc'1"1W. ·

X• Ju~ AFAo1urw, o1•.St01'e ltoru•.r •n.t P•Prt .. tu, ll.ll fro,.,.e wttlr. woO<l,folcnd<Uoo .... a>ld ~· ""'P • 0• Oii.HcUM. b....:c.it., ttn. ro,-;AII;j11r.t4 of floo.,. 6. %4~

& Z ,}t ,5o• ,@ ,s; k•

FIGURE 6. H. Bamber's 1893 Survey of Cape Hatteras Light Station, NC.

SITE HISTORY

National Park Service 15

The principal keeper's wooden picket fence, constructed in 1870, was replaced in 1888.

Although historical sources cite 400 feet of new fence being built, it appears that approximately 900 feet were needed to construct the white board fence that surrounded both dwellings in 1893 photographs.20 The fence was approximately no by 270 feet, with a no-foot segment dividing the two properties (fig. 6).

Period drawings indicate seven single gates, approximately four feet wide, built in the new fence: a north, east, and south gate at the principal keeper's quarters; a south gate and two north gates at the double keepers' quarters; and a shared gate between the two dwellings. By 1920, the storage unit in the principal keeper's northeast corner had been removed and a double gate, approximately eight feet wide, was added.

The wooden board fence eventually rotted and was replaced with a concrete post and wire fence.

This occurred around 1920, possibly at the same time of the tower's new enclosure. Gates were not reconstructed, but double and single openings were left in the new fence where they had originally been located. Additions included a single opening south of the left entrance to the double keepers' quarters, and a new double opening near it on the south side. The single gate between the two quarters was not rebuilt.

Finally, an additional fenced area of approximately one acre was indicated in an 1893 photograph south of the tower. The unpainted wooden board fence contained no animals at the time. This feature was removed by the 1930s.

Other fenced areas were found north of the freshwater pond. A circular wooden-paling fence, approximately fifteen feet in diameter, was located on a very small island in the pond. On higher ground further north, three fenced, cultivated fields were sited.

Circulation Roads. A dirt road, approximately ten feet wide, ran south from Buxton Woods and parallel to the

20. Holland, 99. Four hundred feet would have surrounded either dwelling, but not both.

16 Cultural Landscape Report: Cape Hatteras Light Station beach. It passed the principal keeper's quarters on the east and continued south to the lighthouse.

Walkways. In 1871, a wooden boardwalk was laid from the double keepers' quarters to the principal keeper's south gate. From there it continued in a straight line to the oil house and light tower. At some point after I8JI, it was replaced by a brick walk. A second change in materials occurred by 1893, when period photographs show a five-foot wide concrete walk replacing the brick. The walk expanded to seven feet in width once it entered the iron fence surrounding the lighthouse.

Concrete walks within the principal keeper's quarters were extant as early as 1893. Maintained with straight clean edges, the south door walkway was five-feet wide and lined with white stones.

Another concrete walk, three or four feet wide, went directly from the east door to the single gate at the lighthouse road. A third walk, five feet wide, connected the east door with the cistern. A narrower, possibly three-foot-wide, concrete walk led to the privy in back (north) of the house.

Walks within the double keepers' quarters were also concrete by 1893. Around 1920, new three foot-wide concrete walks were installed around the double keepers' dwelling. The addition followed the footprint of the house, beginning and ending at the southeast entrance. On the northwest corner of the house, a separate segment turned west toward the summer kitchen. On the north side, another walk led from the rear of the house directly north to the two privies.21 Finally, to the south, a three-foot-wide, concrete walk from the double keepers' quarters left entrance was extended to a single gate in the new concrete post and wire fence.

Vegetation Period photographs of the light station showed a dramatically changed landscape since 1803.

Remnants of the maritime forests could only be found in the sand ridges northwest of the station beyond the freshwater pond. Gone were the dunes and the vegetation that covered them.

21. 1916 Plat of Cape Hatteras Light Station.

FIGURE 7. 1893 V1ew of Light Stat1on and 180.i Tower Ruins.

The station keeper~ maintained a \\·ell-kept land cape of prcdominandy…