W900KK23R0005_Attach_19_CBID_III_TC_3-01.80_Visual_Aircraft_ Recognition_20170505.pdf

TC 3-01.80

Visual Aircraft Recognition

MAY 2017

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; Distribution is unlimited

*This publication supersedes TC 3-01.80, dated 29 February 2016.

Headquarters Department of the Army

This publication is available at the Army Publishing Directorate site (http://www.apd.army.mil), and the Central Army Registry site (https://atiam.train.army.mil/catalog/dashboard) http://www.apd.army.mil/ http://www.apd.army.mil/AdminPubs/new_subscribe.asp#subscribe

*This publication supersedes TC 3-01.80, dated 29 February 2016.

i

Training Circular

No. 3-01.80

*TC 3-01.80

Headquarters

Department of the Army

Washington, DC, 5 May 2017

Visual Aircraft Recognition

Contents

Page

PREFACE................................................................................................................... vii

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... viii

Chapter 1 THE NEED FOR VISUAL AIRCRAFT RECOGNITION ........................................... 1-1 General overview ....................................................................................................... 1-1 Air Threat ................................................................................................................... 1-2

Chapter 2 FACTORS AFFECTING VACR ................................................................................ 2-1 Physical Factors Influencing Aircraft Detection ......................................................... 2-1 Using Binoculars (Field Glasses) .............................................................................. 2-5

Chapter 3 AIR IDENTIFYING FEATURES ................................................................................ 3-1 Aircraft Recognition ................................................................................................... 3-1

Chapter 4 VACR Training Program ......................................................................................... 4-1 Fundamentals of VACR ............................................................................................. 4-1 Training ...................................................................................................................... 4-2 Aircraft Teaching Technique...................................................................................... 4-3

Appendix A GROUND ATTACK, CLOSE AIR SUPPORT AND FIGHTER BOMBER ............... A-1

Appendix B AIR SUPERIORITY AND INTERCEPTOR AIRCRAFT ........................................... B-1

Appendix C BOMBER AIRCRAFT .............................................................................................. C-1

Appendix D CARGO AND TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT ................................................................ D-1

Appendix E UTILITY AIRCRAFT ..................................................................................................E-1

Appendix F UNMANNED AIRCRAFT PLATFORMS ................................................................... F-1

Appendix G ROTARY WING AIRCRAFT .................................................................................... G-1

GLOSSARY ................................................................................................ Glossary-1

REFERENCES ........................................................................................ References-1

INDEX ................................................................................................................ Index-1

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; Distribution is unlimited

Contents ii TC 3-01.82 5 May 2017

Figures

Figure 2-1. Method of Estimating 20 Degrees ............................................................................... 2-2

Figure 2-2. Vertical Scan and Search method ............................................................................... 2-3

Figure 2-3. Horizontal Scanning .................................................................................................... 2-3

Figure 2-4. Ground Observer Sitting and Offset ............................................................................ 2-4

Figure 2-5. Sector Surveillance ..................................................................................................... 2-5

Figure 2-6. Binoculars (field glasses) Focal Adjustment ............................................................... 2-6

Figure 2-7. How to Hold Binoculars ............................................................................................... 2-7

Figure 3-1. Wing Types .................................................................................................................. 3-2

Figure 3-2. Fixed Wing Positions ................................................................................................... 3-2

Figure 3-3. Variable Geometry ...................................................................................................... 3-3

Figure 3-4. Types of Wing Tapers ................................................................................................. 3-4

Figure 3-5. Wing Shapes ............................................................................................................... 3-5

Figure 3-6. Canards ....................................................................................................................... 3-6

Figure 3-7. Wing Slants ................................................................................................................. 3-7

Figure 3-8. Engines and Locations ................................................................................................ 3-8

Figure 3-9. Propeller Driven Engines ............................................................................................. 3-9

Figure 3-10. Fuselage Types ....................................................................................................... 3-10

Figure 3-11. Canopy Shapes ....................................................................................................... 3-11

Figure 3-12. Number of Tail Fins ................................................................................................. 3-12

Figure 3-13. Tail Fins ................................................................................................................... 3-13

Figure 3-14. Tail Flats .................................................................................................................. 3-14

Figure 3-15. Location of Tail Flats ............................................................................................... 3-15

Figure 3-16. Rotary Wing and Tail Rotor Mounting Locations ..................................................... 3-16

Figure 3-17. Rear Rotor Mounting ............................................................................................... 3-16

Figure 4-1. Paired Comparison ...................................................................................................... 4-2

Figure 4-2. Aircraft Teaching Technique ....................................................................................... 4-4

Figure A-1. WEFT Description Features ........................................................................................ A-1

Figure A-2. A-10C Thunderbolt II ................................................................................................... A-3

Figure A-3. A-37 Dragon Fly (Cessna) .......................................................................................... A-4

Figure A-4. Alpha Jet ..................................................................................................................... A-5

Figure A-5. AMX ………………………………………………………………………………………….A-6

Figure A-6. AV-8B Harrier II ........................................................................................................... A-7

Figure A-7. Embracer A-29 Super Tucano .................................................................................... A-8

Figure A-8. F-5 Freedom Fighter/Tiger II/T-38 Talon .................................................................... A-9

Figure A-9. F-7P Airguard ............................................................................................................ A-10

Figure A-10. F-16 Fighting Falcon ............................................................................................... A-11

Figure A-11. F/A-18 Hornet.......................................................................................................... A-12

Figure A-12. F-35 Lightning II ...................................................................................................... A-13

Figure A-13. Hawk ....................................................................................................................... A-14

Figure A-14. J-10 (Jian-10/Annihilator-10) ................................................................................... A-15

5 May 2017 TC 3-01.80 iii

Figure A-15. JF-17 Thunder .........................................................................................................A-16

Figure A-16. Jaguar ......................................................................................................................A-17

Figure A-17. F-21 KFIR ................................................................................................................A-18

Figure A-18. L-39 Albatross .........................................................................................................A-19

Figure A-19. Fouga CM-170 Magister ..........................................................................................A-20

Figure A-20. MB-339AN ...............................................................................................................A-21

Figure A-21. MiG-17 Fresco .........................................................................................................A-22

Figure A-22. MiG-21 Fishbed .......................................................................................................A-23

Figure A-23. MiG-27 Flogger ........................................................................................................A-24

Figure A-24. MiG-29 Fulcrum .......................................................................................................A-25

Figure A-25. Mirage III/5 ...............................................................................................................A-26

Figure A-26. Mirage F1 ................................................................................................................A-27

Figure A-27. Q-5 Fantan/A-5 Nanchang ......................................................................................A-28

Figure A-28. J-22 ORAO ..............................................................................................................A-29

Figure A-29. SF-260W .................................................................................................................A-30

Figure A-30. Su-17, 20, 22 Fitter ..................................................................................................A-31

Figure A-31. Su-24 Fencer ...........................................................................................................A-32

Figure A-32. Su-25/28 Frogfoot ....................................................................................................A-33

Figure A-33. Tornado IDS ............................................................................................................A-34

Figure B-1. WEFT description for Air Superiority and Interceptor Aircraft .....................................B-1

Figure B-2. Typhoon .......................................................................................................................B-3

Figure B-3. F-14 Tomcat ................................................................................................................B-4

Figure B-4. F-15 Eagle ...................................................................................................................B-5

Figure B-5. F-22 Raptor .................................................................................................................B-6

Figure B-6. JAS-39 Gripen .............................................................................................................B-7

Figure B-7. MiG-19 Farmer ............................................................................................................B-8

Figure B-8. MiG-23 Flogger ............................................................................................................B-9

Figure B-9. MiG-25 Foxbat ...........................................................................................................B-10

Figure B-10. MiG-31 Foxhound ....................................................................................................B-11

Figure B-11. Mirage 2000 .............................................................................................................B-12

Figure B-12. Rafale ......................................................................................................................B-13

Figure B-13. Su-27 Flanker ..........................................................................................................B-14

Figure C-1. WEFT description for Bomber Aircraft ....................................................................... C-1

Figure C-2. B-1B Lancer ............................................................................................................... C-2

Figure C-3. B-2 Spirit ..................................................................................................................... C-3

Figure C-4. B-52 Stratofortress ..................................................................................................... C-4

Figure C-5. IL-28 Beagle ............................................................................................................... C-5

Figure C-6. TU-22M/TU–26 Backfire............................................................................................. C-6

Figure C-7. TU-95 Bear ................................................................................................................. C-7

Figure C-8. Tu-160 Blackjack ........................................................................................................ C-8

Figure D-1. WEFT description for Cargo and Transport ............................................................... D-1

Figure D-2. AN-12 Cub .................................................................................................................. D-3 iv TC 3-01.82 5 May 2017

Figure D-3. AN-24 Coke, AN-26 Curl ............................................................................................ D-4

Figure D-4. AN-32 Cline ................................................................................................................. D-5

Figure D-5. AN-72 Coaler .............................................................................................................. D-6

Figure D-6. AN-124 Condor ........................................................................................................... D-7

Figure D-7. C-212 Aviocar ............................................................................................................. D-8

Figure D-8. C-8A Buffalo ................................................................................................................ D-9

Figure D-9. C-5 Galaxy ................................................................................................................ D-10

Figure D-10. C-17A Globemaster III ............................................................................................ D-11

Figure D-11. C-130 Hercules/C-130J Super Hercules ................................................................ D-12

Figure D-12. C-160 Transall ........................................................................................................ D-13

Figure D-13. G-222 Aeritalia ........................................................................................................ D-14

Figure D-14. IL-76 Candid ........................................................................................................... D-15

Figure E-1. WEFT description for Utility Aircraft ............................................................................ E-1

Figure E-2. AN-2 Colt ..................................................................................................................... E-2

Figure E-3. C-12 Huron/B200 ........................................................................................................ E-3

Figure E-4. C-23 Sherpa ................................................................................................................ E-4

Figure E-5. King Air ........................................................................................................................ E-5

Figure E-6. O-2 Skymaster ............................................................................................................ E-6

Figure E-7. DO 128-2 Skyservant .................................................................................................. E-7

Figure E-8. PC-7. ........................................................................................................................... E-8

Figure E-9. MV-22 Osprey ............................................................................................................. E-9

Figure F-1. WEFT description for Unmanned Aircraft ................................................................... F-1

Figure F-2. BTT-3 Banshee ........................................................................................................... F-3

Figure F-3. Brevel .......................................................................................................................... F-4

Figure F-4. Crecerelle .................................................................................................................... F-5

Figure F-5. D-4 NPU ...................................................................................................................... F-6

Figure F-6. Model 324 Scarab ....................................................................................................... F-7

Figure F-7. Model 410 .................................................................................................................... F-8

Figure F-8. Mirach 26 ..................................................................................................................... F-9

Figure F-9. Mirach 100 Meteor .................................................................................................... F-10

Figure F-10. MQ-5B Hunter ......................................................................................................... F-11

Figure F-11. MQ-8 Fire Scout ...................................................................................................... F-12

Figure F-12. RQ-2 Pioneer .......................................................................................................... F-13

Figure F-13. MQ-1 Predator......................................................................................................... F-14

Figure F-14. RQ-4B Global Hawk ................................................................................................ F-15

Figure F-15. RQ-7B Shadow ....................................................................................................... F-16

Figure F-16. RQ-170 Sentinel ...................................................................................................... F-17

Figure F-17. RQ-11B Raven ........................................................................................................ F-18

Figure F-18. MQ-9 Reaper........................................................................................................... F-19

Figure F-19. ScanEagle ............................................................................................................... F-20

Figure F-20. Scout ....................................................................................................................... F-21

Figure F-21. Shmel-1 Yak-061 .................................................................................................... F-22

5 May 2017 TC 3-01.80 v

Figure G-1. WEFT description for Rotary Wing ............................................................................ G-1

Figure G-2. AH-1F Cobra .............................................................................................................. G-3

Figure G-3. AH-64 Apache ............................................................................................................ G-4

Figure G-4. AH-6/MH-6 Little Bird ................................................................................................. G-5

Figure G-5. SA-316/SA-319 Alouette III ........................................................................................ G-6

Figure G-6. AS-332 Super Puma/AS-532 Cougar ........................................................................ G-7

Figure G-7. BO-105 ....................................................................................................................... G-8

Figure G-8. CH-47 Chinook ........................................................................................................... G-9

Figure G-9. CH-53 Sea Stallion ................................................................................................... G-10

Figure G-10. SA365 Dauphin 2 ................................................................................................... G-11

Figure G-11. MD 500 Defender ................................................................................................... G-12

Figure G-12. SA-342M Gazelle ................................................................................................... G-13

Figure G-13. Harbin Z-9 Lynx/AS 365 Super Lynx ..................................................................... G-14

Figure G-14. Hirundo A109 ......................................................................................................... G-15

Figure G-15. Ka-27 Helix ............................................................................................................. G-16

Figure G-16. Ka-50 Hokum A/Ka-52 Hokum B ........................................................................... G-17

Figure G-17. WG-13 LYNX ......................................................................................................... G-18

Figure G-18. Agusta A129 Mangusta .......................................................................................... G-19

Figure G-19. Mi-2-Hoplite ............................................................................................................ G-20

Figure G-20. Mi-17/Mi-8 Hip ........................................................................................................ G-21

Figure G-21. Mi-24/25/35 Hind .................................................................................................... G-22

Figure G-22. Mi-26 Halo .............................................................................................................. G-23

Figure G-23. Mi-28 Havoc ........................................................................................................... G-24

Figure G-24. NH90 ...................................................................................................................... G-25

Figure G-25. OH-6A Cayuse ....................................................................................................... G-26

Figure G-26. OH-58D Kiowa ....................................................................................................... G-27

Figure G-27. PAH-2 Tiger/EC-665 Tiger ..................................................................................... G-28

Figure G-28. SA-330 Puma ......................................................................................................... G-29

Figure G-29. SH-3 Sea King ....................................................................................................... G-30

Figure G-30. SA-321 Super Frelon ............................................................................................. G-31

Figure G-31. UH-60A Black Hawk............................................................................................... G-32

Figure G-32. UH-72 Lakota ......................................................................................................... G-33

Tables

Table 4-1. 2016 Aircraft list ............................................................................................................ 4-5

Table A-1. List of Ground Attack, CAS and Fighter Bomber Aircraft .............................................A-2

Table B-1. List of Air Superiority and Interceptor Aircraft ...............................................................B-2

Table C-1. List of Bomber Aircraft ................................................................................................. C-1

Table D-1. List of Cargo and Transport Aircraft ............................................................................ D-2

Table E-1. List of Utility Aircrafts ....................................................................................................E-1

Table F-1. List of Unmanned Aircraft ............................................................................................. F-2 vi TC 3-01.82 5 May 2017

Table G-1. List of Rotary Wing Aircraft .......................................................................................... G-2

5 May 2017 TC 3-01.80 vii

Preface

This manual provides a reference to assist the user in the technique of identifying friendly, hostile, or foreign country aircraft. This manual provides information on current operational aircraft that are observed worldwide or in the combat area. It can be used as source material for personnel conducting unit training in visual aircraft recognition (VACR). The procedures in this publication apply throughout the United States Army (USA). The data contained herein is based on the best information available at the time of publication; however, it is not all-inclusive because of some classification guidelines. This publication, by nature, has a built-in time lag, and some aircraft may still be under development or classified at the time of writing, but may be fielded or unclassified at, or after, publication.

This publication applies to the Active Army, the Army National Guard and the USA Reserve unless otherwise stated. The proponent of this publication is the USA Training and Doctrine Command. The target audience for

VACR training and execution includes leaders, trainers, and evaluators of Air and Missile Defense units all the way down to Soldier level. All commanders, trainers, and leaders must plan, train, and stress risk management integration during all planning and operations. VACR is a highly perishable skill and must be trained on and evaluated regularly in conjunction with table training. While it is the Soldier on the ground, weapon system in hand that is executing VACR, leaders at all levels must be proficient at this skill.

Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively to men.

The proponent for this publication is the Fires Center of Excellence and the United States Army Training and

Doctrine Command. The preparing agency is the United States. Army Fires Center of Excellence and Fort Sill.

Send comments and recommendations on DA Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank

Forms) to Directorate of Training and Doctrine, 700 McNair Road, Suite 128 ATTN: ATSF-D, Fort Sill, OK

73503 or submit an electronic DA Form 2028 by email using the following link: usarmy.sill.fcoe.mbx.dotd-doctrine-inbox@mail.mil.

mailto:usarmy.sill.fcoe.mbx.dotd-doctrine-inbox@mail.mil mailto:usarmy.sill.fcoe.mbx.dotd-doctrine-inbox@mail.mil viii TC 3-01.80 5 May 2017

Introduction

There is little discussion about the depth and breadth of the automation of weapons and weapon systems in the United States (US) Military. Soldiers rely heavily on the use of these systems to employ their will on the battlefield and defeat the enemy. There are times when Soldiers must utilize training that is solely dependent on their knowledge and skill, without the use of automation. VACR is one of these skills. Soldiers utilize

VACR to identify a possible enemy target that could cause grave danger to friendly forces. Once identified, the Soldier must act accordingly. Soldiers must be knowledgeable in the identification of all types of aerial platforms ranging from fixed, tilt, and rotary wing aircraft and unmanned aircraft, in order to protect friendly forces and to prevent fratricide. There have been many arguments through the years that the military does not need VACR, because of the advancement of technology that identifies friendly or enemy aerial platforms.

VACR is a basic skill that every Soldier should know. Soldiers cannot blindly depend on automation to do their jobs for them. VACR give Soldiers the necessary skills to perform at the highest level in defending friendly forces from enemy aerial attack.

Chapter 1 discusses the need for visual aircraft recognition

Chapter 2 describes Factors Affecting VACR

Chapter 3 show Aircraft identifying features

Chapter 4 describes VACR training program

Appendix A discuss ground attack, close air support and fighter-bomber aircraft.

Appendix B discusses air superiority and interceptor aircraft.

Appendix C discusses bomber aircraft.

Appendix D discusses cargo and transport aircraft.

Appendix E discusses utility aircraft.

Appendix F discusses unmanned aircraft platforms.

Appendix G discusses rotary wing aircraft.

Introduction

5 May 2017 TC 3-01.80 ix

Summary of Changes

Training Circular (TC) 3-01.80 has changed from the previous version dated 29 February 2016. The current TC provides information on current operational aircraft that are observed worldwide or in the combat area. The TC can be used as source material for personnel conducting unit training in VACR.

• Chapters contained within this TC present VACR training and execution includes leaders, trainers, and evaluators.

• Chapters/Appendixes have been revised from the previous version of TC 3-01.80, dated 29 February 2016. Changes include chapter Titles and Appendixes:

Chapter 1 The Need for Visual Aircraft Recognition.

Chapter 2 Factors Affecting VACR.

Chapter 3 Aircraft Identifying Features.

Chapter 4 VACR Training Program.

Appendix A Ground Attack, Close Air Support and Fighter Bomber Aircraft is a new title.

Appendix B Air Superiority and Interceptor Aircraft is a new title.

Appendix C Bomber Aircraft is a new title.

Appendix D Cargo and Transport Aircraft is a new title.

Appendix E Utility Aircraft is a new title.

Appendix F Unmanned Aircraft Platforms is a new title.

Appendix G Rotary Wing Aircraft is a new title.

This page intentionally left blank.

5 May 2017 TC 3-01.80 1-1

Chapter 1

The Need for Visual Aircraft Recognition

This chapter outlines the causes for the decline in recognition skills in the past, the reasons for visual aircraft recognition skills today, and an overview of the potential threat.

GENERAL OVERVIEW

1-1. Air platforms are as much a part of the operational environment as tanks and artillery. These aircraft, with their various roles and missions, add a vertical dimension. On today’s battlefield, a Soldier must be able to recognize and identify aircraft (i.e. Close Air Support (CAS) rotary-wing, and unmanned aircraft system

(UAS)). Since there may be many of each type, aircraft recognition training is necessary for every Soldier in the combat force.

FACTORS OF VACR

1-2. A unit’s area of operation can be the deciding factor of the types of aircraft that will be seen in the area. Air threat awareness is critical at the Soldier level. Knowledge of enemy and friendly aerial platforms further decreases any chance of fratricide. Lessons learned have identified factors listed below as the major cause of improper identification of various aircraft entering the combined arms Soldier’s areas of operation.

Increased aircraft capabilities and proliferation demands increased visual aircraft recognition (VACR) capability. Possible results of incorrect identification include:

Factor 1. Recognizing a friendly aircraft as a hostile aircraft will result in fratricide.

Factor 2. Recognizing a hostile aircraft as a friend aircraft will allow hostile aircraft entry into or safe passage through a defended area.

1-3. The geographic location of the theater of operations can be a deciding factor on the type(s) of aircraft that will be encountered. Personnel must be provided ongoing training with specific focus on these particular types of aircraft and their evolving changes in performance and designs that will be seen in that particular theater of operations to decrease the possibility of fratricide. The emphasis on VACR remains a required skill for Soldiers. However, this skill has declined as a critical enabler because of the increased capabilities of sensors, missiles, missile defense, and identification systems (e.g. identification friend or foe (IFF). To maintain air superiority, Soldiers should also realize that some formerly friendly types of aircraft are gradually finding themselves in the hands of non-friendly forces and nations.

1-4. Surveillance for threat aircraft is a 24-hour mission. Unmanned aircraft platforms have been increasingly used for missions as they are cost-effective and there are no requirements for safety considerations for the pilot or increased cost for pilot training. The enemy’s will to fight, state of readiness, order of battle, and combat capability are some additional factors that will determine the enemy’s mission rates or frequencies (sorties) of attacks. Air defense personnel follow rules of engagement that include hostile target criteria, identification, friend or foe (IFF), sensors, and air defense warnings (ADW) in making their engagement decisions. Additionally, weapon control status (WCS) apply to air defense systems in particular, and may be a part of the supported ground force standing operating procedures as well.

1-5. The WCS sets the degree of control over the firing of Air Defense weapon systems. During wartime, aircraft are engaged according to the WCS in effect. The WCS are:

Weapons Free: Fire at any aircraft not positively identified as friendly.

Weapons Tight: Fire only at aircraft positively identified as hostile according to the prevailing hostile target criteria.

Chapter 1

1-2 TC 3-01.80 5 May 2017

Weapons Hold: Do not fire except in self-defense. This status may be set in an area in terms of aircraft type and time. For example, weapons hold, rotary wing, 1200 to 1500 hours.

1-6. Soldiers of these weapon systems depend on visual recognition and identification of aircraft when making engagement decisions. The effectiveness of weapon systems in defeating the low-altitude air threat is directly affected by the skills of the crews and teams in recognition and identification of aircraft. Depending on the environment, rules of engagement may demand that both positive visual identification and electronic identification are obtained prior to target engagement, which makes it imperative that Soldiers have the appropriate level of VACR skill.

AIR THREAT

1-7. The air threat to friendly ground forces operating in the forward area near the line of contact are UAS, fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft. The threat consists of low performance and high performance ground-attack aircraft. These aircraft will conduct CAS reconnaissance, surveillance, interdiction, anti-armor, and troop support missions.

1-8. Thousands of aircraft manufactured by the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics remain in the inventories of potential enemies throughout the world. Many of these aircraft were modified to perform certain roles or upgraded using some of the latest technology. Countries continually upgrade their guidance and weapon systems as needed to support their standing military forces.

1-9. Aircraft manufactured by friendly countries can also be a threat in some regions depending on current situations. For example, the A-4 Skyhawk and Mirage F1 platforms were in the hands of the Iraqi military during the Persian Gulf War. The current air threat makeup is of various types of aircraft with specific missions. Specific threat information in your area of operation is included in your unit’s operation order, intelligence preparation of the battlefield and tactical standing operating procedures.

1-10. A major air threat in the forward area near the line of contact is rotatory-winged aircraft and low, slow, small UAS. Rotary-wing aircrafts once unmasked are very noticeable, but UAS can provide their operators generally close contact with opposing forces with little or no notice.

1-11. Elements in the division and corps rear areas, especially nuclear-capable units, command posts, logistics facilities and reserve forces, can expect repeated attacks by high-performance aircraft. Fighter-bombers and ground attack aircraft are also used to attack convoys. This threat’s effectiveness can be greatly enhanced when UAS tactics are implemented when providing intelligence and surveillance.

1-12. The enemy’s order of battle, combat capability, readiness, resources and willingness to fight are some of the factors that will determine the times and rates of attack.

1-13. Members of the ground forces should understand that while an aircraft may be hostile, not all hostile aircraft are a direct threat. For example, an interceptor or highflying reconnaissance aircraft have little or no direct or tactical threat.

1-14. Threat interceptor aircraft are normally given the mission of countering friendly aircraft on approaches, flanks, and beyond the maximum range of forward area air defense weapon systems. These hostile aircraft will seldom enter the engagement range since their normal operating altitudes are suitable only for air-to-air combat. Additionally, highflying reconnaissance aircraft are not normally within the engagement range.

5 May 2017 TC 3-01.80 2-1

Chapter 2

Factors Affecting VACR

This chapter covers early recognition and identification, aircraft confusion, physical factors, and search techniques. It also covers the use of binoculars, and other recognition considerations. Every attempt made at visual aircraft recognition involves two events. First, an aircraft must be detected. Second, the aircraft must be inspected to distinguish the characteristics or shape that makes it recognizable as a particular aircraft.

PHYSICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING AIRCRAFT DETECTION

Human Physiology: The human eye is “camera-like” and just as a camera lens focuses light onto film;

the cornea (lens) focuses light onto a light-sensitive membrane called the retina (film). The central part of the retina is called the fovea. The fovea is where vision is sharpest. In humans, the fovea is a very small part of the eye that constitutes only one degree of horizontal and vertical vision. Nothing outside this narrow one-degree field can be seen in detail. As an example, an airplane that is visible in the fovea from 6,000 meters would only be visible at 600 meters (or less) if the lens projects the image onto the retina more than 5 degrees on either side of the fovea. Therefore, if a soldier is merely staring at a point in the sky or a point on the horizon the soldier will not see much, if anything, and is missing out on the vast majority of the objects in the sky.

All aircraft must be detected, recognized and then identified at the farthest range possible. Early detection aide’s operators with making timely decisions to report and possibly engage any threat aircraft. The farther out an aircraft is positively identified, the more time a gunner has to make engagement decisions.

Where a sensor is not available, a more accurate perspective can be placed on VACR by teaching aircraft characteristics as they are viewed from the Soldier’s perspective on the surface (ground observation).

There will be varying degrees of required time of detection and identification of aircraft depending on the aircraft’s characteristics (size, speed, heading, and camouflage scheme). Other contributing factors are terrain, available light, background and weather (reduced visibility due to clouds, and combat conditions such as battlefield noise, or smoke from destroyed targets). These contrasting conditions will affect time of detection and identification.

FACTORS AFFECTING AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION

Factors that can affect how effectively or how soon an aircraft can be identified is its size or aspect of direction (incoming, outgoing, or crossing). With the aircraft, incoming or outgoing view less surface area of aircraft will be seen. The crossing view (lengthwise) will provide a side view of the aircraft. This side view enables the observer to see the entire shape of the aircraft making it easier to identify. Large transport type aircraft can be more readily detected and identified at a greater range than smaller fighters or observation type aircraft due to their size. Early identification is critical in areas where an air threat is anticipated. Visual observation techniques are demonstrated in the following illustrations.

Atmospheric Conditions: Haze, smoke, a low ceiling (5/8) of the sky covered with clouds) or an obscured horizon can make it challenging to see distant objects such as aircraft. The same conditions can occur when fog or a cloud layer surrounds the soldier and a high overcast layer hangs overhead.

Other Factors: In additional to atmospheric conditions, allergens or other airborne irritants, fatigue, age, dehydration, and hypoxia can all inhibit the ability of the human eye to perform at an optimum level.

2-2 TC 3-01.80 5 May 2017

ESTIMATION OF SEARCH LIMITS

When searching and scanning for aircraft, do not limit the search too near the horizon and miss higher-flying aircraft, nor search too high above the horizon and miss lower flying targets. The correct upper limit of search is 20 degrees above the apparent horizon. As shown in figure 2-1, the observer extends one hand straight in front of him with his fingers fully spread. With his thumb in the air and his little finger pointed at the ground and touching the apparent horizon, the thumb tip will be about 20 degrees above the horizon.

Figure 2-1. Method of Estimating 20 Degrees

VERTICAL SCAN AND SEARCH

The scan is the technique used to optimize vision for VACR. As shown in figure 2-2, the observer should locate prominent terrain features as quick reference points. By using quick eye movements upward toward the sky, then downward to the horizon and continuing across the terrain, the observer should scan using the same pattern to approximately 20 degrees below the horizon to compensate for all aircraft (manned or unmanned) that require nap-of-the-earth altitude to initiate their missions.

Factors Affecting VACR

5 May 2017 TC 3-01.80 2-3

Figure 2-2. Vertical Scan and Search method

HORIZONTAL SEARCH AND SCAN

As can be viewed in figure 2-3 on page 2-3, from the horizon, the observer should search using short, quick eye movements across the sky while working upward to approximately 20 degrees. As in vertical scanning, the observer should continue the search and scan technique to 20 degrees below the horizon to detect aircraft flying nap of earth. Air guards should employ this technique when friendly forces are at a halt.

Figure 2-3. Horizontal Scanning

GROUND OBSERVER SITING AND OFFSET SEARCH SECTOR SIZE

The ground observer position should be offset from the expected flight path as viewed in figure 2-4 to avoid the tail-on or nose-on aspects.

2-4 TC 3-01.80 5 May 2017

Figure 2-4. Ground Observer Siting and Offset

SEARCH TECHNIQUES

The search techniques listed below will help the observer in aircraft detection.

Squinting aids in focusing the eyes at long ranges. Squinting changes the eyes’ focal length and will aid in bringing distant aircraft into focus.

The blinding effect of the sun can be shielded by extending the arm, blocking the glare. Looking into the sun without shielding the eyes may damage them, and even a temporary blinding effect may cause the observer to miss aircraft.

When searching, especially above the horizon, the eyes will tend to relax and distant objects may become blurred. The problems associated with blurred vision can be overcome by “resetting” or

“refocusing” the eye by looking at an object far in the distance for several seconds. During prolonged periods of poor visibility, refocusing can be repeated every 60-120 seconds.

The observer should keep his eyes on the aircraft. Looking away may make it necessary to search for the aircraft again. If it is necessary to look away, the observer should try to remember exactly where the aircraft was and it is heading direction from a specific point such as a terrain feature.

Aircraft can be detected more easily if the mission requirement demands a narrow search sector by the observer. If an observer is assigned a large search sector such as a 90-degree field of view, the observer’s chances of detecting aircraft are greatly reduced. When the observer is alerted by a supporting alert warning system such as the Sentinel radar and forward area air defense command, control, and intelligence system, then a much smaller sector can be observed. Assigned sectors of search must be defined both horizontally and vertically. If tactically possible, the observer will have a clear line of sight on both the vertical and horizontal planes. Figure 2-5 shows the observer assigned general surveillance and a narrow search provided by warning.

5 May 2017 TC 3-01.80 2-5

Figure 2-5. Sector Surveillance

USING BINOCULARS (FIELD GLASSES)

Binoculars can also be referred to as field glasses. After detecting an aircraft, use binoculars to positively recognize, identify and report the aircraft. This magnification aid has a limited field of view that reduces the observers’ detection range. Binoculars are more effective for fixed siting and not recommended for search and scan techniques.

INTERPAPILLARY ADJUSTMENT

The two monocles that make up a set of field glasses are hinged together so that the lenses can be centered over the pupils of the eyes. The hinge is equipped with a scale (called the interpapillary scale) to indicate the distance from you to the target in millimeters. To find the correct setting look through the binoculars and adjust the hinge until the field of vision appears as a single sharply defined circle. Remember to record the scale setting so that no time is lost when the field glasses need to be used again.

2-6 TC 3-01.80 5 May 2017

FOCAL ADJUSTMENT

Focal adjustments are performed by looking through the lens at a distant object with both eyes open and placing one hand over the lens of the right monocle turning the focusing ring of the left monocle until the object is acutely defined (figure 2-6).

Figure 2-6. Binoculars (field glasses) Focal Adjustment

METHOD OF HOLDING BINOCULARS

Binoculars magnify an aircraft’s image and can aid in recognizing and identifying aircraft at greater ranges. In contrast, do not use them for search and scan because binoculars have a limited field of view, which reduces detection range. Binoculars are most effective when used correctly. Use the following steps:

Keep the binoculars uncased and ready for use.

Use polarized filters when they are available.

Use a stationary rest position for your elbows.

Hold the binoculars lightly, with the monocles resting on and supported by the heels of the hands.

Hold the eyecups lightly to the eyes to avoid transmission of body movement.

Use the thumbs to block out unwanted light that would enter between the eyes and eyecups.

Keep the eyes on the detected aircraft, and carefully raise the binoculars to the eyes to acquire the aircraft. Sudden or jerky movements may cause the observer to lose sight of the aircraft.

5 May 2017 TC 3-01.80 2-7

The following illustration figure 2-7, demonstrates the correct hand position when using binoculars.

Figure 2-7. How to Hold Binoculars

SPECIAL RECOGNITION CONSIDERATION

Another option for the observer to consider for recognition support is integrating with any systems equipped with the forward looking infrared (FLIR). FLIR can be used for early aircraft detection and tracking in adverse weather and nighttime operations. It enhances the crew’s ability to provide 24-hour coverage to a defended asset. FLIR can give the gunner a choice to switch from a normal wide field of view on the screen display, to a narrow field of view that provides detail of distant objects by enlarging their image. Unlike binoculars, systems such as RADAR or low-light television, FLIR is able to pick up minimal temperature differences and convert them to a crisp thermal image from which aircraft details can be identified. FLIR uses thermal imaging that can see in total darkness and can see through light fog, rain and snow. FLIR also has the ability to see through smoke, which gives it more utility since it can see across a smoke-obscured battleground.

An aircraft recognition and identification shortcoming, when using the FLIR on some weapon systems, is that the display is available only to the gunner. Another area of concern is that FLIR provides little or no aircraft identification capability at its maximum range. As the aircraft draws nearer, the definition of shape and outline begins to appear and the gunner can distinguish between a jet, propeller-driven, and helicopter aircraft. In some instances, only the aircraft type will be recognized.