Attachment 03 - 2014 Archaeological Survey.pdf

January 2014

Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina Phase I Archaeological Survey of 41.6 Acres and Phase II Testing of 38SU1096 Shaw Air Force Base, Sumter County, South Carolina

United States Air Force Air Combat Command

Global Power for America

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Attachment 3

VLSB 15-0007 Archaeological Study

Phase I Archaeological Survey of 41.6 Acres and Phase II Testing of 38SU1096, Shaw Air Force Base

Sumter County, South Carolina

Report submitted to:

VERSAR/Geo-Marine, Inc. • 2201 K Avenue, Suite A2 • Plano, Texas 75074

Report prepared by:

New South Associates • 722-A Blanding Street • Columbia, South Carolina 29201

Natalie Adams Pope – Principal Investigator

Natalie Adams Pope – Archaeologist and Co-Author Tracy Martin – Archaeologist and Co-Author

January 24, 2014 • Draft Report New South Associates Technical Report 2345

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PHASE I /PHASE 2 – 42.6 ACRES SHAW AFB i

ABSTRACT

New South Associates completed a Phase I Archaeological Survey of land recently acquired by Shaw Air Force Base. The total survey area examined was 42.6 acres. Five archaeological resources were identified. They consisted of four prehistoric sites (38SU1093, 38SU1094, 38SU1095, and 38SU1096) and one historic scatter (38SU1097). Of these sites, all but one site were believed to be not eligible for the National Register Historic Places (NRHP). However, site 38SU1096 contained areas of relatively dense artifacts and was thought to contain some undisturbed deposits. In addition, one piece of calcined bone was encountered, indicating some faunal preservation. Since the eligibility of the site could not be determined, Phase II Archaeological Testing was carried out. New South Associates conducted the survey between June 25 and 28, 2013 and the Phase II testing investigation between October 22 and 25, 2013.

Site testing was performed in order to definitively determine the NRHP eligibility of 38SU1096 as well as to gather information, which would facilitate the responsible management of this resource. Based on the information gathered during testing, 38SU1096 is recommended as eligible for the NRHP. The site exhibited intact stratigraphy and subsurface features including several probable posts, a trench, and well-defined pit. Features were not excavated as part of the Phase II testing.

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ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

New South Associates would like to thank Missi Green and Duane Peter of VERSAR/Geo- Marine, Inc. for managing the overall project. Dave Davis of Shaw Air Force Base assisted in obtaining access to the area. We appreciate his and Ronnie June’s interest in our work. Field crew for the Phase I survey included Patrick Severts and Jacob Wilkerson. Severts also assisted with the Phase II testing, along with Elizabeth Farkas and Daniel Upchurch.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................... i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... iii

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ v

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... vi

I. INTRODUCTION

II. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

REGIONAL PHYSIOGRAPHY

REGIONAL CLIMATE

INTERRIVERINE UPLAND ECOSYSTEMS

PALEOENVIRONMENT

III. CULTURAL CONTEXT

PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH

PREHISTORIC CONTEXT

PALEOINDIAN PERIOD

ARCHAIC PERIOD

WOODLAND PERIOD

MISSISSIPPIAN PERIOD

HISTORIC PERIOD

IV. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

FIELD METHODS

SURVEY

TESTING

LABORATORY METHODS

V. RESULTS OF THE PHASE I SURVEY

38SU1093

38SU1094

38SU1095

38SU1096

38SU1097

VI. RESULTS OF PHASE II TESTING AT 38SU1096

SHOVEL TESTING

TEST UNITS

AREA 1

AREA 2

iv

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

VII. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

REFERENCES CITED

APPENDIX A. ARTIFACT CATALOG

APPENDIX B. SITE FORMS

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Property Map Showing Survey Areas and Identified Sites

Figure 2. Sumter West USGS Topographic Map Showing Location of Identified Sites in

Relation to 38SU83 and 38SU299

Figure 3. 1821 Boykin Map Showing the Project Area

Figure 4. 1878 McLaurin Map Showing the Project Area

Figure 5. Map of 38SU1093

Figure 6. Map of 38SU1094

Figure 7. Map of 38SU1095

Figure 8. Map of 38SU1096

Figure 9. Views of Long Branch Road

Figure 10. Map of 38SU1097

Figure 11. Phase II Testing Map of Site 38SU1096

Figure 12. 38SU1096 Lithic Density Map

Figure 13. 38SU1096 Ceramic Density Map

Figure 14. Plan and East Profile of Test Units 3 and 4

Figure 15. Views of Test Units 3 and 4

Figure 16. South View of Test Units 1, 2, 5, and 6

Figure 17. Plan View of Tests Units 1, 2, 5, and 6

Figure 18. East Profile of Test Units 1 and 2 and East View of Test Units 1, 2, 5, and 6

Figure 19. West Profile of Test Units 1, 2, and 5 and West View of Test Units 1, 2, 5, and 6. .. 58

Figure 20. Representative Ceramics from 38SU1096

Figure 21. Projectile Points and Knives from 38SU1096 vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Identified Sites and National Register Eligibility Recommendations

Table 2. Lithic Artifacts Recovered from Shovel Tests

Table 3. Prehistoric Ceramics Recovered from Shovel Tests

Table 4. Lithic Artifacts by Types and Raw Material in Test Unit 3

Table 5. Lithic Artifacts by Types and Raw Material in Test Unit 4

Table 6. Projectile Points from Area 1 (measurements in millimeters)

Table 7. Ceramics Excavated in Area 1

Table 8. Lithic Artifacts by Types and Raw Material in Test Unit 1

Table 9. Lithic Artifacts by Types and Raw Material in Test Unit 2

Table 10. Lithic Artifacts by Types and Raw Material in Test Unit 5

Table 11. Lithic Artifacts by Types and Raw Material in Test Unit 6

Table 12. Projectile Points from Area 2 (Measurements in Millimeters)

Table 13. Ceramics Excavated in Area 2

Table 14. Locations of Calcined Bone Recovered from Area 2

PHASE I /PHASE 2 – 42.6 ACRES SHAW AFB 1

I. INTRODUCTION

New South Associates completed a Phase I Archaeological Survey of land recently acquired by Shaw Air Force Base. The total survey area examined was 42.6 acres. Five archaeological resources were identified (Figure 1). They consisted of four prehistoric sites (38SU1093, 38SU1094, 38SU1095, and 38SU1096) and one historic scatter (38SU1097). Of these sites, all but one were believed to be not eligible for the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP).

However, site 38SU1096 contained areas of relatively dense artifacts and was thought to contain some undisturbed deposits. In addition, one piece of calcined bone was encountered indicating some faunal preservation. Since the eligibility of the site could not be determined, Phase II archaeological testing was carried out. New South Associates conducted the survey between June 25 and 28, 2013 and the Phase II testing investigation between October 22 and 25, 2013.

Site testing was performed in order to definitively determine its NRHP eligibility as well as to gather information, which would facilitate the responsible management of this resource. Based on the information gathered during testing, 38SU1096 is recommended as eligible for the NRHP.

The site exhibited intact stratigraphy and subsurface features including several probable posts, a trench, and well-defined pit.

The work was conducted in accordance with, and in partial fulfillment of, the U.S. Air Force’s obligations under the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended through 1992 (P.L.

89-665; 80 Stat. 915; 16 U.S.C. § 470 et seq); the Archaeological and Historic Preservation Act of 1974, as amended (P.L. 93-291); the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (P.L. 90- 190); Executive Order 11593, “Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environment”; the American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA) of 1978; and the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990.

Field crew for the Phase I survey included Patrick Severts and Jacob Wilkerson. Severts also assisted with the Phase II testing, along with Elizabeth Farkas and Daniel Upchurch. Mr. Tracy Martin served as Field Director for the Phase I survey, while Natalie Adams Pope served as Field Director for the Phase II testing of 38SU1096. Ms. Pope served as Principal Investigator for both phases.

Chapter I contains this introduction, while Chapters II and III contain the environmental and cultural contexts. Chapter IV provides the research design and methodologies used. Chapter V presents the results of the Phase I survey, while Chapter VI presents the results of the Phase II testing of 38SU1096. Chapter VII provides a summary and recommendations. Appendix A is the artifact catalog, while Appendix B consists of the site forms.

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Figure 1.

Property Map Showing Survey Areas and Identified Sites

38SU1095

38SU1094

38SU1096

38SU1093

38SU1097

0 800 1,600400 Feet

0 300 600150 Meters

Source:

USGS Summer West, South Carolina Quadrangle

Site Boundary

Project Area

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II. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

Shaw Air Force Base (AFB) is located in Sumter County, in the Upper Coastal Plain physiographic province of South Carolina. Sumter County is bounded by two river systems, the Lynches River to the east, and the Wateree River to the west. The junction of the Wateree and Congaree rivers at the southwest corner of Sumter County and approximately 20 kilometers southwest of the project area forms the head of the Santee River, which empties into the Atlantic Ocean south of Georgetown, South Carolina. Flowing south through the middle of Sumter County, between the Wateree-Santee and the Lynches rivers, is a smaller drainage containing the Black River and its tributaries. The main tributary of the Black is the Pocotaligo River that flows adjacent to the city of Sumter, county seat and population center of Sumter County. Shaw AFB lies near the divide between the Wateree to the west, and the Pocotaligo to the east. Because of its location on the divide, most of the streams in the area are relatively small and seasonal. The project area itself is drained by Long Branch, which drains into the Pocotaligo River.

Ethnohistoric accounts of aboriginal activities in inter-riverine upland zones of the central coastal region indicate that this physiographic province was utilized seasonally, and as a hunting and gathering preserve for the collection of nuts and game (Waddell 1980). Archaeological investigations in the region indicate great time depth to this land use pattern since prehistoric Native American occupants used these upland habitats on a temporary or seasonal basis. Of course, it is likely that the settlement and subsistence strategies of the people who occupied the region changed through time as overall adaptation patterns changed. It is through the definition and analysis of these subtle variations in land use that the archeology of this zone can contribute to a broader understanding of the character of prehistoric human behavior of the central South Carolina coast.

REGIONAL PHYSIOGRAPHY

Late Tertiary sea level transgressions created physiography that is typical of the South Carolina Coastal Plain region (Mathews et al. 1980). The Coastal Plain is comprised of a series of island-beach ridge sequences that, when viewed on the landscape, appear as broad, depositional terraces running subparallel to the coastline and extending inland approximately 100 kilometers to the Orangeburg Scarp. The edge of each terrace consists of a discontinuous sand ridge that represents the remains of an earlier barrier island chain, while the clayey sand plain behind each terrace was once back-barrier, tidal flat lagoons and marshes (Colquhoun 1969). Winker and Howard (1977) have grouped the numerous coastal terrace units into a series of three beach

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ridge-barrier island sequences that span the entire length of the Coastal Plain of Georgia and South Carolina. The furthest inland of these sequences is referred to as the Trail Ridge- Orangeburg Scarp, located west of the project area. This is a rather dramatic and continuous geomorphic unit that demarcates the boundary between the rolling topography of the Inner Coastal Plain and the flat, terraced terrain of the Outer Coastal Plain (Kovacik and Winberry 1987:20).

Other Pleistocene-age deposits in the Coastal Region include fluvial features such as floodplains, point bars, dune sheets, terraces and Carolina Bays. A frequently occurring feature of the major river valleys is the dune sheet formations that have been dated to the Late Wisconsin (20,000- 10,000 years B.P.). These features exhibit a parabolic structure and generally occur as a series of southwest-northeast trending ridges located on the eastern edges of river valleys. The outer Coastal Plain segments of the Pee Dee (Thom 1970), Santee, Savannah, and Altamaha rivers all possess this peculiar structure (Mathews et al. 1980). The dune fields typically overlie Pleistocene terrace and floodplain formations in these river valleys. Probably the most impressive of these features are a series of broken sand hills associated with the Orangeburg Scarp. These sand hills are remnant sand dunes associated with an ancient shoreline that have been reworked and reshaped by wind and river erosion (Cooke 1936). Extending in a north-south line east of the Wateree River, these hills comprise the spine of Sumter County (Ramsey and Green 1922:13, 26). The project area, located in southern Sumter County, is situated on the southern crest of these hills that forms the drainage divide between the Pocotaligo and the Wateree rivers.

Other significant landform features occurring in the general area are shallow, elliptical depressions ranging between approximately one and four centimeters in length called Carolina Bays (Thom 1970). These bays tend to be oriented in a northwest-southeast direction. The sand rims that form around their edges are typically most developed on their southeastern edges.

Although it has long been known that these bays played a major role in the settlement-subsistence strategies of prehistoric and historic Native American groups inhabiting the Coastal Plain region, very little documentation concerning the importance of Carolina Bays to Native American groups presently exists. Two Carolina Bays are found south of the project area and are named Big Bay and Juniper Bay. Located near the crest of the sand hills, adjacent to the divide between the Wateree and Pocotaligo drainages, these two bays are poorly drained and are often inundated with water. Juniper Bay serves as the source for Sammy Swamp, a tributary of the Pocotaligo. Halfway Swamp, a small tributary of the Santee, drains Big Bay.

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REGIONAL CLIMATE

The climate of the Coastal Plain region has been described as "humid subtropical" (Critchfield 1974) typified by short, mild winters and hot, humid summers. Proximity to the ocean moderates temperatures on the coast, causing lower maximum and higher minimum temperatures than inland locations. Moreover, the growing season is longer, grading from approximately 225 days in the Piedmont to nearly 300 days at the coast (Carter 1974). On the South Carolina coast, average July temperatures reach 27.2° C, while average January temperatures range between 8.8° C and 10° C (Kovacik and Winberry 1987). Summers are dominated by warm, moist, tropical air masses, and precipitation during this season is generally produced by convection storms.

Winter precipitation, by contrast, originates from continental fronts out of the north and west.

Spring usually represents the driest season, but rare drought conditions can occur in the fall.

INTERRIVERINE UPLAND ECOSYSTEMS

In the Inner Coastal Plain region, mixed hardwood forests are most likely composed of two basic community types in the vicinity of the project area today: sloped mesic hardwoods and upland mesic hardwoods. The structure and composition of the sloped mesic hardwood communities correspond closely with Braun's (1950) mixed mesophytic forest type. Dominant tree species in the South Carolina sloped mesic hardwood communities consist of beech, bull bay, laurel oak, red maple, black gum, tulip tree, sweet gum, and loblolly pine. The upland mesic hardwood community corresponds to Braun's (1950) "oak-hickory forest" type and represents the climax vegetation of the Coastal Plain according to Quarterman and Keever (1962). Dominant trees consist of beech, laurel oak, bull bay, white oak, sweet gum, mocker nut hickory, water oak, southern red oak, pignut hickory, and black gum.

Another major ecosystem of the inter-riverine uplands, is the swamp tupelo community (Sandifer et al. 1980:378). It is concentrated in the low-lying back barrier-lagoon facies where the water table is at, or slightly above, the ground surface. Plant associations in this community consist of hardwoods dominated by tupelo and gum along with subdominants such as red bay, sweet bay, and red maple (Shelford 1963). Loblolly pine, short leaf pine, water oak, white oak, and hickories occur on better-drained topographic features within the larger swamp system.

Fauna of the inter-riverine uplands is typical of terrestrial forests. The pine-mixed hardwood and mixed hardwood communities contain the greatest abundance and diversity of terrestrial fauna.

Amphibians and reptiles generally occupy moist habitats within the uplands such as leaf-litter, burrows and temporary pools, and feed on soil fauna and insects. Numerous salamanders, hylid frogs or tree frogs, and toads dominate the amphibious fauna, while a wide array of lizards and snakes comprise the majority of the reptile species. Turtles are rare in the upland ecosystem, and

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are generally represented by only the eastern box turtle in South Carolina. Birds tend to occupy very specialized niches in the forest and as such their habitat and forest associations tend to be better defined. Pine forests have the lowest densities and species diversity of birds. Only 13 dominant species are listed for this forest type by Sandifer et al. (1980:465) including the screech owl, red-bellied woodpecker, eastern wood pewee, southern crested flycatcher, the Carolina chickadee, the brown-headed nuthatch, the eastern bluebird, two warblers, summer tanager, Bachman's sparrow, the ground-feeding bobwhite, and the common crow.

Thirty-two species of birds dominate upland pine-mixed hardwood and mixed hardwood communities (Sandifer et al. 1980:469-470). However, the overall structure of this list, is very similar to the one produced for the pine communities. The screech owl remains the single largest predator and insectivore species are the most abundant. Three species of woodpeckers (ie.

pileated, red-bellied, and downy), blue jays, morning doves, Carolina chickadee, Carolina wren, common crows, hermit thrush, the tufted tit mouse, robin, catbirds, the blue-gray gnat catcher, cardinals, and various species of vireos, warblers, and sparrows comprise the list of dominants.

Numerous additional moderately important and minor species appear, including various hawks, vultures, owls, insectivores, and turkey.

Dominant mammalian herbivores of the Upland forests of the Coastal Plain consist of white-tailed deer, squirrels, the eastern wood rat, and the cotton mouse. The opossum and raccoon comprise the dominant omnivores, while major carnivores include the gray and red fox, the striped skunk, the short-tailed shrew, the long-tailed weasel, the bobcat, and the black bear (Sandifer et al. 1980:3:478). Prior to European settlement, cougars, gray wolves, and possibly minor numbers of elk and bison existed in the inter-riverine upland.

PALEOENVIRONMENT

A series of climatic changes are responsible for the current climate of the project locality, which should not be taken to represent past climates and associated flora and fauna. Three paleoenvironments: the Full Glacial, Late Glacial, and Post-Glacial, are recognized in the Southeast. The Full Glacial period extended from 25,000-15,000 B.P, and was characterized by a dry, cold environment. Glacial ice did not reach as far south as South Carolina; however, the state was covered by a boreal forest. Vegetation in the southeastern United States during this time period has been inferred to represent a pine parkland with minor components of spruce, fir, and broad-leaved hardwoods (Watts 1980:392-393; Watts et al. 1996). Pine comprises 60-80 percent of the pollen spectra from this period. Three spruce species appear to have been widespread across the Atlantic Slope during this period, Picea glauca, P. rubens, and P.

mariana. The herbaceous dominants are principally associated with prairies today, and included

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PHASE I /PHASE 2 – 42.6 ACRES SHAW AFB 7

wormwood (Artemisia), ragweed (Ambrosia), other composites (Tubuliflorae), grasses, and sedges. The climate during this period was drier than today, with winter temperatures averaging 15 degrees colder than the modern norm.

The Late Glacial period, extending from 15,000-10,000 B.P., witnessed gradual warming and wetter conditions, with the appearance of deciduous species. Northern hardwood forests dominated by hemlock, oak, hickory, beech, birch, and elm gradually replaced the boreal forest.

Some conifers, such as pine and spruce, were also well represented in the hardwood forests.

Prairies were interspersed throughout the hardwood forest. These conditions peaked in occurrence between 12,810 and 9,500 B.P. according to pollen cores taken from White's Pond (Watts 1980). The forest vegetation changed from a patchy occurrence, which had characterized the previous period, to a more homogeneous appearance.

The Post-Glacial period extends from 10,000 B.P. to the present. This period witnessed yet further warming and the advent of the modern climates. Open prairie-like land decreased in size during this period, and hardwood forests with oak and hickory dominating, reached its maximum extent. Between 9,000 and 10,000 B.P., more xeric-adapted forests of oak, hickory, and pine replaced the mesic forests of the Southeastern Coastal Plain. It was also during this time period that the dramatic rise in post-Pleistocene sea level began to stabilize, and by about 9,000 B.P., sea level was only several meters lower than it is today. Current paleoenvironmental reconstruction suggests that both a drop in precipitation and an increase in temperature ushered in the Holocene and ultimately provided the impetus for the continued altitude and latitude migration of the mesic-adapted forest species northward and upward (Davis 1983).

By 9,000 B.P., temperatures were estimated to have been approximately equal to today’s.

Sometime during the interval between 8,000-6,000 B.P., it is hypothesized that temperatures were significantly higher (Davis 1983:176). This interval has been variously referred to as the Altithermal, the mid-Holocene temperature maximum, and the Hypsithermal. It was during this time that the oak-dominated deciduous forest of the eastern United States reached its maximum distribution, and hickory experienced a florescence (Webb 1988:402). By the end of this period, modern vegetation distributions had become established throughout the Southeast.

Between 6,000 and 5,000 B.P. increased moisture brought about by increased precipitation and an increase in sea level (approximately 60-m mean sea level) led to the development of coastal salt marshes, interior wetlands, and river floodplains. A decidedly new forest type, the southern pine forest, replaced the oak-hickory-southern pine forests along the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Atlantic Coastal Plain as far north as southern Virginia (Delcourt and Delcourt 1981; Watts 1980; Webb 1988). Associated with this forest type was the expansion of swamp species such as

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cypress, sweet gum, and tupelo or black gum. Swamps, and the establishment of the southern pine forest in the Coastal Plain appear to have been brought about by the processes that lead to sea level stabilization and accompanying stream gradient flattening. By 6,000-5,000 B.P. the formation of the modern swamps along the Coastal Plain was essentially completed (Brooks et

al. 1989).

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PHASE I /PHASE 2 – 42.6 ACRES SHAW AFB 9

III. CULTURAL CONTEXT

An overview of the prehistoric and historic development of the Shaw AFB area is described in order to provide a framework against which to judge the significance of any cultural resources found during the current survey. The land within what is now Shaw AFB is situated at the interface between the well-defined pre-historic cultural sequences of the North Carolina Piedmont and the Savannah River Valley. In the early historic period, this region was occupied by the Sioux tribes of central South Carolina (Santee, Wateree, Waxhaw, and Congaree) (Swanton 1946). These tribes were all members of the Catawba language division, which was also comprised of the Eno branch, the Catawba tribe of north-central South Carolina, and the Pee Dee branch of the adjoining region of southern coastal North Carolina and northern coastal South Carolina. It is quite possible that the Sioux affiliation of this larger culture area extended into prehistory. Reasonably well-defined sequences exist for the North Carolina Piedmont (Coe 1964), the North Carolina south coastal zone (Phelps 1983), and the lower Santee River Valley of South Carolina (Anderson et al. 1982). These are the basis for the following synopsis of the prehistory of central interior South Carolina.

PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH

A great deal of archaeological research has been done in the vicinity of Shaw AFB – primarily at Poinsett Electronic Combat Range locate approximately 10 miles south of Shaw AFB. An overview of these resources and results of the archaeology is presented in Adams (2005) and should be consulted for more detail.

More pertinent to the immediate survey area and assessment of site 38SU1096 is a Phase II investigation of nearby 38SU299, which is located approximately 0.7 mile downstream on Long Branch. Banguilan et al. (2005) found evidence of intact Early to Middle Woodland Deptford features. In addition, large concentrations of Woodland Plain, Deptford, and Cape Fear ceramics were present at least three locations. Ceramic analyses suggest that these concentrations are partial pot bursts where ceramic vessels were either cached or directly used in the operation domestic activities. Finally, and perhaps the most meaningful insight gained from the testing investigation, was in raw material usage between the major cultural components. Raw material data from 38SU299 indicates that Allendale chert was most heavily utilized during the Archaic period and Early Woodland (Refuge) sub-period. The recovery of a Small Savannah River Stemmed Projectile Point/Knife suggests that rhyolite appears to characterize raw material use during the Late Archaic sub-period. A more prominent shift occurred during the late-Early

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Woodland/Middle Woodland sub-periods, as rhyolite debitage and tools are clearly the dominant lithic raw material type associated with the site’s Deptford component. Another clear shift in raw material use occurred during the subsequent ceramic late Middle Woodland and Late Woodland sub-periods where they observed an almost exclusive pairing of quartz debitage with Cape Fear ceramics in one of the test units. Based on this information, the site was determined eligible for inclusion in the NRHP. Site 38SU299 was merged with another nearby site, 38SU250. However, the 38SU250 portion was determined not eligible for the NRHP at the survey level.

Also nearby is 38SU83, located approximately two miles north of 38SU1096. Data recovery at this site occurred in association with the relocation and widening of U.S. Highway 521 and revealed a long occupational history. However, the most significant aspect of the site was an Early to Middle Woodland Yadkin component. Radiocarbon dates firmly dated the Yadkin phase between 420 B.C. and 180 B.C. (2,470 and 2,130 B.P.). Results of the artifact analysis indicated that 38SU83 was probably a special function site experiences periodic, intensive occupation during the Early to Middle Woodland period (Blanton et al. 1986). Of interest was the fact that the small triangular points recovered there were within clear Yadkin contexts. They noted the occurrence of two distinct sizes of triangular points and suggest that temporal assignment for triangular points based on size must be carefully made. The size difference may be due to function (Blanton et al. 1986:168). Figure 2 shows the location of sites identified during survey in relation to 38SU83 and 38SU299.

PREHISTORIC CONTEXT

PALEOINDIAN PERIOD

The earliest clearly documented period of human occupation in the region is referred to as the Paleoindian period of prehistory. This period dates from approximately 12,000 and 10,000 B.P.

(Haynes et al. 1984) and represents the first concrete findings of humans in the southeastern United States. The origins of the Paleoindian period at approximately 11,500 B.P. is the subject of much debate, and there is some evidence to suggest earlier human occupation of the North American continent. Evidence for occupation within the southeastern United States prior to 12,000 B.P. has yet to be conclusively demonstrated. Paleoindian sites are primarily recognized by the occurrence of diagnostic projectile points, most of which have been recovered as surface occurrences. Anderson et al. (1990:53), in their overview of Paleoindian archaeology in Georgia, note that of the 50 Paleoindian fluted points found in the Savannah River Basin, only four have been recovered from excavated contexts.

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Figure 2.

Sumter West USGS Topographic Map Showing Location of Identified Sites in Relation to

38SU83 and 38SU299

38SU1095

38SU1094

38SU1096

38SU1093

38SU1097

38SU250/299

38BU83

0 1,300 2,600650 Feet

0 500 1,000250 Meters

Source:

USGS Summer West, South Carolina Quadrangle

Previous Site Locations

Site Boundary

Project Area

11PHASE I /PHASE 2 – 42.6 ACRES SHAW AFB

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Anderson et al. (1990:7) divided the Paleoindian period into Early, Middle, and Late Paleoindian sub-periods. Early Paleoindian is characterized by fluted points comparable to the classic southwestern Clovis point, which are referred to as Clovis and Clovis Variants in Georgia (see (Michie 1977:62–65). Clovis Variants are generally smaller that true Clovis points, and Anderson et al. (1990:6) suggested that these "appear to be extensively re-sharpened Clovis points." Alternatively, Anderson et al. (1990:6) suggested that Clovis Variants resemble Simpson points, which are assigned to the Middle Paleoindian period. Middle Paleoindian points includes the Cumberland, Simpson, Quad, Suwannee, Beaver Lake forms, and possibly the Clovis Variants.

Late Paleoindian points include fluted and unfluted Dalton forms, as well as Quad and Beaver Lake points. The latter are considered transitional from the Middle to the Late Paleoindian period. The Dalton type can exhibit considerable variation in form, which is considered to reflect a long use-life and continual re-sharpening of such points (Anderson et al. 1990).

Archaeological evidence suggests that Paleoindians survived as migratory hunters, who focused on the pursuit of large game. The association of Paleoindian artifacts and mammoth remains, Bison antiquus, and giant land tortoise (Anderson and Joseph 1988:102) supports this subsistence/settlement model. In South Carolina, most Paleoindian points have been found along river terraces near the intersection of larger streams and rivers with smaller streams and creeks.

The overall distribution of these points reflects a preference for the coastal plain (Michie 1977).

While no Paleoindian points have been recorded for the current project area, numerous specimens have been documented from the nearby Black River drainage in eastern Sumter County and from southern Kershaw County between Boykin and Camden (Charles and Michie 1992).

ARCHAIC PERIOD

The Archaic sequence has been traditionally divided into three periods: the Early Archaic (10,000-8,000 B.P.), the Middle Archaic (8,000-5,000 B.P.), and the Late Archaic (5,000-3,000 B.P.). In general, the Archaic is viewed as a lengthy time of adjustment to changing environments brought about by the Holocene warming trend and a rising sea level. Caldwell's (1958) model of wide-niche or "broad spectrum" hunter-gatherer adaptations continues to succinctly define the period. However, the differences between the cultures at either end of the sequence are immense and indicate that major cultural and adaptation changes occurred during the entire Archaic period that might not fit a gradual model of change.

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Survey on the Lynches River (Cable and Cantley 1979), as well as excavations near Jefferson in Chesterfield County (Gunn and Wilson 1993) and near Conway in Horry County (Cable et al.

1996), indicated that portions of South Carolina above the Santee River contain an Archaic projectile point sequence nearly identical to the one Coe (1964) constructed for the North Carolina piedmont. Early Archaic forms include, from earliest to latest, the Hardaway Side- Notched and small and large Palmer or Kirk Corner-Notched points. Representatives of the terminal Early Archaic Bifurcate Tradition (Chapman 1975) are also found in small quantities.

The Middle Archaic sequence begins with large square-stemmed and widely side-notched points known as Kirk Serrated and Kirk Stemmed, which are followed by the closely aligned Stanly Stemmed. Next, the Morrow Mountain I and II Stemmed types follow. Then, the Lanceolate Guilford and Brier Creek types follow. Late Archaic points include the early Savannah River Stemmed and Knife types and the smaller Otarre Stemmed point. Pottery makes its appearance in the terminal Late Archaic with the fiber-tempered Stallings series and the sand-tempered Thom’s Creek series (see Blanton et al. 1986; Cable et al. 1996).

Early Archaic lithic assemblages are quite similar to those of the Paleoindian period. Projectile points remain stylistically formalized and show evidence of economizing rejuvenation strategies.

Hafted end scrapers continue to be well represented and there is an emphasis on the curation and use of high-quality cryptocrystaline raw material such as chert and high-grade metavolcanics.

Cleland (1976) has suggested that these attributes indicate a continued focus on the hunting and processing of big game animals.

A number of settlement models have characterized the Fall Line as the hub of territorially expansive settlement systems during the Early Holocene along the Atlantic Slope. Noting the apparently heavy concentration of Early Archaic points in this zone, Goodyear (1983; Goodyear et al. 1989:44) has speculated that this pattern either evidenced a disproportionately high reoccupation at the Fall Line or its use as a zone of base camp habitation of a prolonged seasonal nature. Anderson and Hanson (1988) later elaborated on this general scheme by proposing a seasonal round for Early Archaic systems in which the Piedmont was exploited during the summer and early fall, the coastal plain was targeted in the spring, and the Fall Line was inhabited during the fall and winter. It is further proposed that the territories of Early Archaic bands were organized linearly along major drainages. Settlement in the interior coastal Plain is thought to have consisted of small foraging residences and specialized logistical extraction camps. Settlement along the coast is poorly understood because the early Holocene coastline is now buried. Evidence documenting the use of shellfish and other coastal resources represents a major gap in Archaic research.

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The Middle Archaic is generally recognized as the full adaptation to the climatic and environmental conditions of the Holocene, as represented by increased population, increased sedentism, and the formation of more rigid territorial boundaries. Diagnostic projectile points of this period include the Stanly Stemmed, Morrow Mountain I and II, and Guilford Lanceolate types. Typological identification for the latter portion of the Middle Archaic is less secure, and Anderson and Joseph (1988:135) noted that Halifax (Coe 1964) and Benton-like points such as the MALA (Sassaman 1983) may represent transitional Middle to Late Archaic forms.

Middle Archaic peoples are hypothesized to have lived in residentially mobile small bands focused on relatively small territories (Anderson and Joseph 1988; Blanton and Sassaman 1989;

Claggett, Cable, Larsen, et al. 1982:1; Sassaman 1983). Middle Archaic settlement is considered to reflect a restriction of the linear extension of proposed Early Archaic band territories along drainages, and an expansion to include and exploit a greater variety of resources. Two major settlement models for the South Atlantic slope have been advanced: Sassaman's "adaptive flexibility" model (Blanton and Sassaman 1989; Sassaman 1983), and the "riverine-interriverine" model developed and presented by House, Goodyear, and others (Goodyear et al. 1979; House and Ballenger 1976).

Sassaman's model of "adaptive flexibility" views Middle Archaic settlement as highly mobile and expedient. Because of this mobility, Sassaman (1988:5) argued that Middle Archaic sites tended "to be small in size, low in artifact density and diversity, distributed abundantly and widely across the piedmont, and exhibit little interassemblage variation." Sassaman argued that Middle Archaic peoples exploited locally available resources, and migrated on a regular basis in order to reach and utilize these resources. Tools were highly expedient, and within the Piedmont, the preferred raw material was locally available quartz. By nature of this mobility and expedient technology, the typical Middle Archaic site would be the ubiquitous "lithic scatter."

House and Goodyear posited a different model of Middle Archaic settlement, in which base camps were established along the river floodplains and extraction/procurement sites occurred in the upland and interriverine areas in order to exploit locally available resources found in those areas. Thus, while House and Goodyear would also predict a dispersion of Middle Archaic sites, their research would suggest differentiation in site function, contents, and complexity, particularly between the floodplain and the uplands. While the data at present are inconclusive, the relative paucity of large, complex, Middle Archaic sites and the identified characteristics of the Middle Archaic tool kit support the assumptions of Sassaman's "adaptive flexibility" model.

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The Late Archaic is transitional to the horticultural-based economies of the Woodland period.

Four major trends characterize Late Archaic adaptations across the Southeast: 1) incipient, low-level plant cultivation, 2) dense middens with evidence of dwellings and storage facilities, 3) the initial use of stone and ceramic containers, and 4) intensification of exchange relationships (see Smith 1986:28–42; Steponaitis 1986:373). Large shell middens of Stallings and Thom's Creek affiliation occur throughout the coast and coastal plain river valleys of Georgia and central and southern South Carolina and indicate extensive secondary resource exploitation and the establishment of semi-sedentary villages (Claflin 1931; Stoltman 1974). Steatite vessels are widely distributed along the Atlantic Slope and steatite net-sinkers have been found along the coast (Coe 1964:112–113; Stoltman 1974). Pottery was also initially produced during the Late Archaic and is now known to have a similarly wide distribution to that of steatite vessels (Phelps 1983). Stone technology indicative of seed processing use, such as polished and pecked stone artifacts, mortars, and hand stones, are commonly found in Late Archaic sites, as are subsurface storage pits (Stoltman 1974: 48-49).

The nature of Late Archaic occupation in North Carolina is not well understood at present.

Much of the trappings of the Stallings Island culture of the Sea Islands region (i.e. massive shell middens and an elaborate bone and antler industry) are lacking (Claggett, Cable, and Larsen 1982:1), but investigations have been too limited to determine the nature of the subsistence system. Whether North Carolina Late Archaic groups were similarly organized to the seasonally sedentary groups of the interior Southeast and the Sea Islands regions, or whether they were operating at a much lower level of social intensification, is a major research question.

The Late Archaic middens on the southern South Carolina coast are not only large, but they also contain a broad range of estuarine and terrestrial subsistence resources and a high diversity of artifactual material. These characteristics have led a number of individuals to suggest that these early shell middens represent intensive multi-seasonal habitations (see also Michie 1974;

Trinkley 1976; 1980). In contrast, the bulk of the shell middens dating after 3,000 B.P. are small and thin with low artifact density and tool diversity.

Documentation of intensively occupied upland settlements from this time period in the Middle Savannah River Valley has led to a reconstruction that stipulates spring and summer aggregation along the river terraces and fall-winter household dispersion into the headwaters of upland creeks (Brooks and Hanson 1987; Sassaman 1983; White 1982). Furthermore, there are indications that the aggregation sites can be grouped into two hierarchical levels, with the largest sites of this type occurring on the ecotones along the fall line (i.e. Stalling's Island, Lake Spring) and coast (Bilbo, White's Mound, Cox). Fall Line aggregation sites are speculated to represent locations where communal anadromous fish harvests were organized and appear to have also served as

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seasonal villages. Lower level aggregation sites occur near the mouths of tributary streams and they are speculated to represent specialized staging areas for residential groups prior to summer dispersal. Clearly, similar settlement patterns may typify the Santee, Black, Lynches, and Little Pee Dee rivers during the Late Archaic sub period in central interior South Carolina.

WOODLAND PERIOD

The Woodland period in central South Carolina and surrounding regions spans the time interval between 3,000 and 800 B.P. and is divided into "Early" (3,000-2,600 B.P.), "Middle" (2,600- 1,200 B.P.), and "Late" (1,200-800 B.P.) sub periods. In most regions of the Southeast the Late Archaic-Woodland transition is seen as encompassing continuity with patterns of sedentism intensification gradually building in magnitude (Steponaitis 1986:378–379). These patterns consisted of an increased emphasis on gardening and exploitation of seeds, greater adjustments toward sedentary life ways, and elaboration on mortuary ritual and political control.

Perhaps the most significant development distinguishing the early portion of the Woodland period from the Late Archaic is the full-blown emergence of what Ford (1985:347–349) referred to as the Eastern Agricultural Complex. This complex was composed of indigenous species of seed-producing commensal weeds including sunflower, sump weed, goosefoot, may grass, knot weed, small barley, and giant ragweed. The former three exhibit signs of domestication by the terminal phases of the Late Archaic, while the others appear to have been intentionally transported and cultivated in Late Archaic and Woodland contexts. Bottle gourd and squash represented very early Mexican introductions and along with the Eastern seed complex, formed the basis of the Early Woodland gardening subsystem. Maize was a relatively late entrant into the eastern Woodland groups, with an initial date of appearance of about 1,700 B.P. (Yarnell and Black 1985). In spite of the rather substantial evidence for horticultural activities, isotopic analyses of Early and Middle Woodland skeletal populations do not indicate a dependence on cultigens (Bender 1985).

Evidence for sturdy, possibly permanent, houses is abundant from this time interval. Along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts, the massive shell middens of the Late Archaic sub period are replaced by more diffuse scatters of shell that are interpreted as the refuse from individual households (Milanich and Fairbanks 1980). Settlements appear to be small, ranging in size from 5-10 households, and cover less than a hectare in area. Similarly small Early and Middle Woodland settlements with ample remains of houses have been investigated in the interior Southeast and in the mountains and piedmont of the Atlantic Slope (Keel 1976; McNutt and Weaver 1983).

Generally, these settlements are viewed as seasonal in nature but were annually re-occupied.

The character of shell midden morphology and dimensions changes dramatically in the Early and

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Middle Woodland periods along the South Carolina and Georgia coasts, and may reflect strategic shifts toward settlement patterns similar to those chronicled in the ethnohistoric accounts. The large Thoms Creek middens and rings disappear and the remaining shell middens consist of small, diffuse scatters indicative of short-term, seasonal occupation by small groups. Many of the sites of these periods, in fact, do not even contain shell.

The Middle and Late Woodland periods are perhaps the least well known of any of the ceramic bearing periods in the region. The standard representation for Middle Woodland settlement systems along the central South Carolina coast is credited to Milanich's (1971:214–215;

Milanich and Fairbanks 1980:71–75) "seasonal transhumance" model developed for Deptford occupations in Florida. The model stipulates that populations in coastal locations maintained a bi-seasonal settlement pattern involving alternating winter-summer habitations on the coast used to exploit marine and estuarine resources. Fall habitation areas in the interior were used to gather nuts and hunt terrestrial game. The coastal settlements located in the maritime live oak strand are said to represent small, semi-permanent, non-agricultural villages, while the inland habitations are hypothesized to represent temporary fall encampments occupied by separate nuclear family units. There is evidence to suggest that Middle and Late Woodland subsistence-settlement patterns in the region were more diverse and less dependent on coastal resources than those of later Mississippian groups (Brooks and Canouts 1984:250–255; Brooks et al. 1989:96), but the details of these patterns have not yet been effectively modeled.

Equally dramatic settlement shifts have been documented for interior riverine localities of the coastal plain. The abandonment of the large riverine sites of the Late Archaic has been identified within the Middle Savannah River Valley. The transformation of upland seasonal residences into increasingly permanent settlements during the Early Woodland sub-period has been apparent (Brooks and Hanson 1987). During the Middle Woodland sub-period, infilling is argued to intensify, and river terrace sites are again selected for intense, permanent residential occupation, while dispersed household occupation in the uplands continues and expands into the smaller units. The centralization detected in the Middle Woodland settlement pattern, which might indicate increased social complexity during this interval, appears to fragment during the Late Woodland and a pattern of regularly dispersed, small habitation sites is established.

This Woodland pattern of dispersal may have been manifested much earlier on the northern South Carolina coastline due to an extremely sparse estuarine development here. In fact, no record of sizable Late Archaic or Early Woodland shell middens exists throughout this region or the south coastal zone of North Carolina. During the Mount Pleasant phase, which would correlate temporally with the late Middle Woodland to the south, Phelps (1983:33) observed that there is a shift in small site occupations from tributary streams to major trunk streams on the

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interior and estuaries in the tidewater zone. He posited that these sites represent seasonal shell gathering camps occupied by only a few extended or nuclear families at any one time. The interior riverine sites are posited to represent similar sized resource extraction camps. Larger village sites may exist, but none have been located and excavated.

Throughout the Southeast and Midwest, the later Early Woodland and the Middle Woodland sub periods mark the beginnings of distinctive mortuary complexes, characterized by the incorporation of burial mound features. These features are commonly regarded as evidence for the emergence of segmented lineages, systems of ranked social status, and "big-man" leadership roles (Brose et al. 1979; Smith 1986:45–50; Steponaitis 1986:382–383). Typically, such systems are unstable and particularistic. The wide regional diversity in mortuary ritual evinced in these burial mounds is generally regarded as a reflection of these social organizational characteristics.

The Late Woodland has often been characterized as a time of cultural decline. This is primarily because of the apparent simplification of the burial complexes. This view seems biased due to the events surrounding the collapse of the Hopewell Interaction sphere in the Midwest where dramatic declines in the diversity and "exotic" character of grave offerings occurred (Brose et al.

1979). Over many other areas of the eastern Woodlands, however, the differences are less extreme, and, if anything,…