ATTACHMENT 5 Trends-FY-2020-and-FY-2022.pdf

ATTACHMENT 5

Current Perspectives on SNAP Participation

Trends in Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Participation Rates: Fiscal Year 2020 and Fiscal Year 2022

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Nutrition Assistance Program Report Series Office of Policy Support

October 2024

United States Department of Agriculture

USDA is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender.

United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Service, Office of Policy Support October 2024

Trends in Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Participation Rates: Fiscal Year 2020 and Fiscal Year 2022

Authors:

INTENTIONALLY BLANK

Submitted by:

Submitted to:

Office of Policy Support USDA, Food and Nutrition Service 1320 Braddock Place Alexandria, VA 22314

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was conducted under contract 12-3198-23-F-0047 with FNS. An electronic version of the report is available at https://www.fns.usda.gov/research-analysis.

October 2024 https://www.fns.usda.gov/research-analysis vii

CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................. xiii

INTRODUCTION

ESTIMATED PARTICIPATION RATES FOR FY 2022

CHANGES TO PARTICIPATION RATES FROM PRE-PANDEMIC FY 2020 TO FY 2022

TRENDS IN PARTICIPATION RATES FOR SUBGROUPS

ESTIMATED BENEFIT RECEIPT RATES IN FY 2022

METHODOLOGY

REFERENCES

APPENDIX A DETAILED PARTICIPATION RATE ESTIMATES FOR FY 2022

APPENDIX B DETAILED PARTICIPATION RATE ESTIMATES FOR PRE-PANDEMIC FY 2020

APPENDIX C HISTORICAL SNAP PARTICIPATION RATE ESTIMATES

APPENDIX D METHODOLOGY

APPENDIX E SAMPLING ERROR OF PARTICIPATION RATE ESTIMATES

APPENDIX F ECONOMIC AND POLICY INFLUENCES ON SNAP

APPENDIX G HISTORICAL SNAP ELIGIBILITY PARAMETERS

APPENDIX H PREVIOUS REPORTS IN THIS SERIES

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TABLES

1 Estimated individual and household participation rates and benefit receipt rates, FY 2022

2 Estimated SNAP individual participation rates by characteristics, pre-pandemic FY 2020 and FY 2022

3 Estimated number of eligible and participating individuals and households, benefits, and participation rates, pre-pandemic FY 2020 and FY 2022

4 Estimated participation rates and benefit receipt rates, by individual-level demographic characteristics, FY 2022

5 Estimated participation rates and benefit receipt rates, by household-level demographic and economic characteristics, FY 2022

A.1 Estimated individual and household participation rates and benefit receipt rates, FY 2022

A.2 Estimated individual participation rates by household size, FY 2022

A.3 Estimated individual participation rates by demographic characteristics, FY 2022

A.4 Estimated individual participation rates by economic characteristics of households, FY 2022

A.5A Estimated individual participation rates for individuals living with children, FY

A.5B Estimated individual participation rates for individuals not living with children, FY

A.6 Estimated household participation rates, FY 2022

A.7 Estimated benefit receipt rates by household-level demographic and economic characteristics, FY 2022

A.8 Estimated benefit receipt rates by individual-level demographic characteristics, FY 2022

B.1 Estimated individual and household participation rates and benefit receipt rates, pre-pandemic FY 2020

B.2 Estimated individual participation rates by household size, pre-pandemic FY

B.3 Estimated individual participation rates by demographic characteristics, pre-pandemic FY 2020

B.4 Estimated individual participation rates by economic characteristics of households, pre-pandemic FY 2020

B.5A Estimated individual participation rates for individuals living with children, pre-pandemic FY 2020

B.5B Estimated individual participation rates for individuals not living with children, pre-pandemic FY 2020

B.6 Estimated household participation rates, pre-pandemic FY 2020 x

B.7 Estimated benefit receipt rates by household-level demographic and economic characteristics, pre-pandemic FY 2020

B.8 Estimated benefit receipt rates by individual-level demographic characteristics, pre-pandemic FY 2020

C.1 Estimated number of eligible and participating individuals, households, and benefits, and participation rates, 1976 to FY 2022

C.2 Change in estimated individual SNAP participation rates, 1988 to 2022

D.1 Unweighted sample sizes for the CPS ASEC, 1977 to 2023

D.2 Median monthly unweighted counts of households by the probability of being eligible, FY 2022

D.3 Changes in the CPS ASEC over time

D.4 Percentage of noncitizens imputed to be refugees, by analysis year and year of arrival

D.5 Percentage of adults ages 18–49 without disabilities in childless households imputed to be potentially eligible, by SNAP participation in past year

D.6 SNAP net income regression coefficients

D.7 FY 2022 Federal SNAP gross and net income limits, by SNAP household size and geography

D.8 FY 2022 maximum and minimum monthly SNAP benefit amounts, by SNAP household size and geography

D.9 Unweighted sample sizes of SNAP QC case records

E.1 Sampling error associated with selected participation rate estimates, FY 2022

E.2 Sampling error associated with selected participation rate estimates, pre-pandemic FY 2020

F.1 Summary of major influences on SNAP participation rate estimates, 1976 to 2022

F.2 Major economic indicators, 1976 to 2022

F.3A Historical legislation affecting SNAP

F.3B Selected features of SNAP under past legislation—income limits

F.3C Selected features of SNAP under past legislation—resource limits

F.3D Selected features of SNAP under past legislation—benefits

F.3E Selected features of SNAP under past legislation—deductions

F.3F Selected features of SNAP under past legislation—accounting period, categorical eligibility

F.3G Selected features of SNAP under past legislation—work registration requirements and time limits

F.3H Selected features of SNAP under past legislation—treatment of legally resident noncitizens xi

F. 3I Selected features of SNAP under past legislation—other changes

G.1 Monthly SNAP gross income screen, 1982 to 2022

G.2 Monthly SNAP net income screen, 1976 to 2022

G.3 Monthly maximum SNAP benefit, 1976 to 2022

G.4 Minimum monthly SNAP benefit, 1980 to 2022

G.5 Resource eligibility, 1976 to 2022 xii

FIGURES

ES.1 The neediest individuals participate in SNAP at higher rates than other eligible individuals, FY 2022 ....................................................................................................................... xiii

ES.2 Participation rates vary by age and living situation, FY 2022 ......................................................... xiv

ES.3 Participation rates for individuals vary by household income sources, FY 2022 ............................ xiv

1 Individual participation rate estimates by subgroup, FY 2022

2 Percentage change in participating individuals and eligible individuals, pre-pandemic FY 2020 to FY 2022

3 Percentage point change in participation rates for all individuals and selected subgroups, pre-pandemic FY 2020 to FY 2022

4 Percentage point change for individuals by household size, pre-pandemic FY 2020 to FY 2022

C.1 Trends in SNAP participation rate estimates, 1976 to 2022

F.1 Trends in SNAP individual participation rate estimates, poverty rates, and unemployment rates, 1976 to 2022 xiii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) provides nutrition assistance to eligible low-income individuals and households in need. SNAP is the largest of the domestic nutrition assistance programs administered by the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) of the U.S.

Department of Agriculture (USDA). In an average month in FY 2022, 41.2 million people received benefits.

The participation rates in this report are estimates of the percentage of individuals who were eligible for SNAP benefits under Federal income and resource rules that chose to participate in the program. Of the 38 million individuals eligible for SNAP in an average month during this period, nearly 34 million (88 percent) participated, and nearly 5 million did not. The FY 2022 participant total presented in this report differs from the official participation total of 41.2 million because it excludes certain individuals, such as those who lived in Guam and the Virgin Islands;

those who were categorically eligible under State policies and did not meet the Federal SNAP income or resource rules; and those who received temporary disaster benefits. The individual participation rate increased by 7 percentage points— from 81 to 88 percent—from pre-pandemic FY 2020 to FY 2022.

The neediest individuals—those in households with income below the Federal poverty guidelines—participate in SNAP at higher rates than other eligible individuals do. Conversely, eligible individuals in households with incomes above the poverty guidelines participate at lower rates. In FY 2022, 59 percent of eligible individuals in households with income between 101 and 130 percent of the poverty guidelines and just 32 percent of eligible individuals in households with incomes more than 130 percent above the poverty guidelines participated in SNAP (Figure

ES.1).

Figure ES.1. The neediest individuals participate in SNAP at higher rates than other eligible individuals, FY

Sources: FY 2022 SNAP Program Operations and SNAP Quality Control data, and 2022 and 2023 Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement data.

* The use of different data sources to estimate rate numerators and denominators can result in estimates of eligible individuals with a particular characteristic that are lower than the corresponding estimates of participants. When this happens, estimated rates exceed 100 percent. We do not report estimated rates higher than 100 percent. See Appendix D for more information.

xiv

SNAP participation rates vary by age. The rate for children has historically been relatively high, and remained so in FY 2022. Conversely, just over half (55 percent) of eligible elderly adults (age 60 or older) participated in FY 2022 (Figure ES.2). The rate for elderly individuals living with others was particularly low―less than half the rate for those living alone.

Figure ES.2. Participation rates vary by age and living situation, FY 2022

Participation rates also vary by source of income. The participation rate for individuals in households without earned income (95 percent) is higher than the overall rate, and the rate for individuals in households with earned income (76 percent) is lower than the overall rate (Figure ES.3). The participation rate for individuals in households receiving Supplemental Security Income (SSI) benefits is similar to the overall participation rate. However, participation rates are lower than the national rate for individuals in households receiving Social Security (73 percent) or Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) income (55 percent).

Figure ES.3. Participation rates for individuals vary by household income sources, FY 2022 xv

In addition to presenting participation rates for FY 2022, this report presents rates for the FY 2020 pre-pandemic period, defined as October 2019 through February 2020. The FY 2020 rates include only the pre-pandemic months due to data limitations related to the COVID-19 public health emergency.

We used methodologically similar approaches to estimate the pre-pandemic FY 2020 and FY 2022 participation rates. However, the COVID-19 public health emergency affected FY 2020 SNAP Quality Control (QC) data collection. As a result, the pre-pandemic FY 2020 rates are based on five months of data (October 2019 through February 2020) while the FY 2022 rates are based on the full twelve months of the fiscal year. Because of seasonality both in the data and introduced by our methodology, readers should use caution when comparing the pre-pandemic FY 2020 and FY 2022 participation rates. Specifically, using five rather than twelve months of data resulted in an overestimate of SNAP eligibility and thus an underestimate of the SNAP participation rate in pre-pandemic FY 2020. In addition, the FY 2020 participation rates presented in this report differ from those in Vigil (2022) because we re-estimated the FY 2020 estimates using new Current Population Survey (CPS) Annual Social and Economic Supplement (ASEC) weights that reflect the 2020 Census. Consequently, the rates in this report should not be compared to those in Vigil (2022).

We estimated participation rate denominators—the numbers of eligible individuals—from the CPS ASEC data. To estimate FY 2022 SNAP eligibility, we used the 2022 and 2023 CPS ASEC. Because SNAP participation is underreported in survey data, we estimated participation rate numerators—the numbers of participants—from SNAP Quality Control (QC) data.

Differences between the CPS ASEC and SNAP QC data resulted in some estimated participation rates exceeding 100 percent. These differences reflect who is represented in the data, what household composition data are available, when and how income is reported, and the extent to which program participation is reported.

INTRODUCTION

The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) provides nutrition assistance to eligible low-income individuals and households in need. In fiscal year (FY) 2022, SNAP provided $114 billion in annual benefits to an average of 41.2 million people per month.1

Most individuals whose income and resources fall below certain thresholds are eligible for SNAP. Others are categorically eligible because they live in pure public assistance households.

These are households in which each member receives Supplemental Security Income (SSI);

Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) cash benefits; or, in some States, General Assistance cash benefits. The individual and household participation rates in this report are estimated percentages of individuals and households that were eligible for SNAP under Federal income and resource rules that chose to participate in the program. The benefit receipt rates indicate the amount of benefits received as a proportion of total benefits that would have been paid if every eligible household had participated. Some individuals may be eligible for SNAP because they meet other, broader State criteria for categorical eligibility. However, those eligible solely based on State criteria are not included in these estimates.

For this report, we estimated participation rates for the pre-pandemic period in FY 2020 and the full fiscal year in FY 2022. The COVID-19 public health emergency affected the quality of the SNAP Quality Control (QC) data for FY 2020, which are used to estimate the participation rate numerators. Specifically, FNS granted States temporary waivers for conducting QC reviews starting in March 2020. Very few States collected SNAP QC data from March 2020 to May 2020. Most States opted to conduct QC reviews from June 2020 through September 2020, although FNS was unable to provide its usual level of oversight of the sampling procedures.

Furthermore, monthly State samples for this time period were often smaller than usual. In addition, economic and program circumstances changed during the public health emergency. For these reasons, we estimated FY 2020 rates for the pre-pandemic period of FY 2020, from October 2019 through February 2020. The public health emergency also affected data collection throughout most of FY 2021. Consequently, the edited FY 2021 SNAP QC data file was limited to three months of data (July 2021 through September 2021). Due to these data limitations, we were unable to estimate participation rates for FY 2021.

We used methodologically similar approaches to estimate the pre-pandemic FY 2020 and FY 2022 participation rates. However, the pre-pandemic FY 2020 rates are based on five months of data while the FY 2022 rates are based on twelve months. Because of seasonality in the estimates, using five rather than twelve months of data resulted in an overestimate of SNAP eligibility and thus an underestimate of the SNAP participation rate in pre-pandemic FY 2020.

As a result, readers should use caution when interpreting the pre-pandemic FY 2020 participation rates and when comparing to the FY 2022 participation rates.

We estimated participation rate denominators from the Current Population Survey (CPS) Annual Social and Economic Supplement (ASEC) data. Both the FY 2020 and FY 2022 estimates presented in this report use CPS ASEC weights that reflect the 2020 Census. To

1 The FY 2022 participant total presented elsewhere in this report differs from the official participation total of 41.2 million because it excludes certain individuals, such as those who (1) lived in Guam and the Virgin Islands, (2) were categorically eligible under State policies and did not meet the Federal SNAP income or resource rules, or (3) received temporary disaster benefits. Appendix D has more information.

estimate FY 2022 SNAP eligibility, we used the 2022 and 2023 CPS ASEC. To estimate pre-pandemic FY 2020 SNAP eligibility, we used the 2020 and 2021 CPS ASEC.

Readers should note that the FY 2020 participation rates presented in this report differ from those in Vigil (2022). We re-estimated the FY 2020 participation rates using new CPS ASEC weights that reflect the 2020 Census.

Because SNAP participation is underreported in survey data, we estimated participation from SNAP Quality Control (QC) data. Differences between the CPS ASEC and SNAP QC data resulted in some estimated participation rates exceeding 100 percent. These differences reflect who is represented in the data, what household composition data are available, when and how income is reported, and the extent to which program participation is reported.

In Appendix A, we present detailed tables showing the participation rates for FY 2022. In Appendix B, we present detailed tables showing the revised participation rates for pre-pandemic FY 2020. Tables showing historical SNAP participation rates appear in Appendix C. In Appendices D and E, we explain the methodology used to develop the rates and the sampling error of the participation rate estimates, respectively. Appendix F presents historical economic and policy influences on SNAP. In Appendix G, we outline SNAP eligibility policies from 1976 to 2022. Appendix H lists all previous reports in this series.

ESTIMATED PARTICIPATION RATES FOR FY 2022

In an average month in FY 2022, approximately 38 million individuals were eligible for SNAP under Federal rules. Of those, nearly 34 million participated in the program (Table 1).2 The individual participation rate was 88 percent, and the household rate was 4 percentage points higher, at 92 percent. SNAP participation rates varied by demographic and economic subgroup (Table 2; Figure 1). Historically, the neediest individuals have participated at higher rates than other eligible individuals. The same pattern held in FY 2022. Conversely, eligible individuals in households with incomes above the poverty guidelines participate at lower rates. The participation rate for individuals in households without earned income (95 percent) is higher than the overall rate, and the rate for individuals in households with earned income (76 percent) is lower than the overall rate. Only 34 percent of individuals who were eligible for the minimum benefit or less participated in FY 2022; these individuals have higher incomes on average than other SNAP households do.3

Figure 1. Individual participation rate estimates by subgroup, FY 2022

* We do not report estimated rates higher than 100 percent. See Appendix D for more information.

2 All tables are at the end of the main text.

3 The minimum benefit is applicable only to one- and two-person households.

Elderly individuals (age 60 or older) typically participate in SNAP at lower-than-average rates—55 percent in FY 2022. Among this group, the participation rate for those living alone (71 percent) was more than twice that of those living with others (32 percent) (Table 2; Figure 1).

Social Security recipients, a group that typically includes many elderly individuals, also participate at lower-than-average rates (73 percent). Other groups with participation rates below the FY 2022 national rate (Figure 1) included individuals in households with earned income, those in households with TANF income, noncitizens, and citizen children living with noncitizen adults (76, 55, 50, and 59 percent, respectively). In contrast with the rate for citizen children living with noncitizen adults, the participation rate for children overall has historically been high and remained so in FY 2022.

CHANGES TO PARTICIPATION RATES FROM PRE-PANDEMIC FY 2020 TO FY 2022

The estimated individual participation rate was 81 percent in pre-pandemic FY 2020 and 88 percent in FY 2022 (Table 2). As mentioned in the Introduction, we advise caution when comparing the FY 2020 participation rates to the FY 2022 participation rates because the FY 2020 rates presented in this report are likely underestimated. The FY 2020 participation rates presented in Vigil (2022) similarly underestimated the SNAP participation rate in the pre-pandemic FY 2020 period and should be interpreted with caution.

The number of SNAP participants was 32.9 million in FY 2020 and 33.6 million in FY 2022 (Table 3; Figure 2). The increase in participation might be related to policies that States implemented in response to the COVID-19 public health emergency, such as applying for waivers to forgo eligibility interviews or extend certification periods. SNAP benefits also increased from both COVID-19 emergency allotments and a reevaluation of the Thrifty Food Plan. The estimated number of eligible individuals was 40.8 million in FY 2020 and 38.3 million in FY 2022. As noted, some of the decrease in estimated SNAP eligibility may be an artifact of using only five months that overestimated SNAP eligibility in that fiscal year.

Figure 2. Participating individuals and eligible individuals, pre-pandemic FY 2020 and FY 2022

Sources: SNAP Program Operations data; SNAP Quality Control data; Current Population Survey Annual Social and

Economic Supplement data for the years shown.

Note: FY 2020 findings are for the pre-pandemic period (October 2019 to February 2020).

TRENDS IN PARTICIPATION RATES FOR SUBGROUPS

Similar to the overall participation rate, many demographic and economic subgroups had higher estimated participation rates in FY 2022 than in FY 2020. However, patterns in the participation rate levels for subgroups relative to the national average remained similar across the two years.

Similar to FY 2020, elderly individuals participated at a lower-than-average rate in FY 2022 while non-elderly individuals participated at a higher-than-average rate in FY 2022 (Figure 3). The participation rates for elderly individuals, overall and whether living alone or with others, remained below the national average participation rate in both FY 2020 and FY 2022. Among elderly individuals, those living alone participate at the highest rate, 71 percent in FY 2022. In contrast, the participation rate for non-elderly adults remained above the national average participation rate in both periods, at 84 percent in FY 2020 and 95 percent in FY 2022.

The increase for non-elderly adults may be driven by the large increase in the estimated participation rate for adults ages 18–49 without disabilities living in childless households.

Figure 3. Participation rates for all individuals and selected subgroups, pre-pandemic FY 2020 and FY 2022

Sources: SNAP Program Operations data; SNAP Quality Control data; Current Population Survey Annual Social and

Participation rates varied by household size in pre-pandemic FY 2020 and FY 2022 (Figure 4). Similar to FY 2020, individuals in small households (one or two members) participated at a lower-than-average rate in FY 2022 and individuals in medium-sized (three or four members) and large households (five or more members) participated at a higher-than-average rate (97 percent and 91 percent, respectively). The participation rate for individuals living in medium-sized households remained the highest relative to the national average – at 9 percentage points higher – while individuals living in large households participated at a rate 3 percentage points higher than the average.

Figure 4. Participation for individuals by household size, pre-pandemic FY 2020 and FY 2022

Sources: SNAP Program Operations data; SNAP Quality Control data Current Population Survey Annual Social and

Note: Small households have one or two members; medium-sized households have three or four members; and large households have five or more members. The percentage point change for individuals in large households in the figure is not statistically significant.

In FY 2022, participation rates increased from pre-pandemic FY 2020 across most participants grouped by their household countable income as a percentage of poverty guidelines (Table 2). The participation rate among individuals in households with no income remained above the national average and had among the largest estimated increases from FY 2020. The participation rate for individuals in households with income greater than 100 percent of the Federal poverty guidelines similarly experienced a large increase in FY 2022 but remained below the national average participation rate in both FY 2020 and FY 2022. The participation rate for individuals in households that receive the minimum benefit or less continued to participate at among the lowest rates for subgroups we examined.

ESTIMATED BENEFIT RECEIPT RATES IN FY 2022

To calculate benefit receipt rates, we divided the benefits received by participating households by the potential benefits available to the eligible households. We calculated prorated benefit receipt rates for individual-level characteristics in a similar manner, using individuals’ prorated benefits (the household benefit divided by the number of people in the household).

Given that individuals eligible for larger benefits participate in SNAP at higher rates than those eligible for smaller benefits, prorated benefit receipt rates are higher than individual participation rates (Table 4).

The overall benefit receipt rate and the benefit receipt rate for many subgroups are estimated to be more than 100 percent. This is due to differences in the data sources between the CPS ASEC (used for the rate denominator) and the SNAP QC data (used for the rate numerator) that result in some estimated participation rates exceeding 100 percent. These differences reflect who is represented in the data, what household composition data are available, when and how income is reported, and the extent to which program participation is reported. Among age groups, elderly individuals had the lowest individual prorated benefit receipt rate (70 percent), although elderly individuals living alone had a much higher benefit receipt rate than those living with others (33 percent) (Table 4). Similarly, households with elderly members had among the lowest household benefit receipt rates (62 percent) (Table 5). Households with TANF recipients also had a low household benefit receipt rate of 58 percent. Noncitizens and citizen children living with noncitizen adults had lower-than-average prorated benefit receipt rates of 62 percent and 72 percent, respectively (Table 4). Households with income at 101 to 130 percent of poverty had a benefit receipt rate of about 77 percent of the benefits for which they were eligible (Table 5).

Although the benefit receipt rates tend to be higher than household participation rates, this was not always the case in FY 2022. Households with non-elderly adults with disabilities and those with TANF recipients had benefit receipt rates (93 and 58 percent, respectively) that were lower than household participation rates (more than 100 percent and 63 percent, respectively) (Table 5).

METHODOLOGY

This report presents participation rates for FY 2022 and pre-pandemic FY 2020. We used methodologically similar approaches to estimate the pre-pandemic FY 2020 and FY 2022 participation rates. However, the COVID-19 public health emergency affected FY 2020 SNAP QC data collection. As a result, the pre-pandemic FY 2020 rates are based on five months of data (October 2019 through February 2020) while the FY 2022 rates are based on the full twelve months of the fiscal year. Because of seasonality both in the data and introduced in our methodology, readers should use caution when interpreting the pre-pandemic FY 2020 and comparing them to the FY 2022 participation rates. Specifically, using five rather than twelve months of data resulted in an overestimate of SNAP eligibility and thus an underestimate of the SNAP participation rate in pre-pandemic FY 2020. For more information, see Appendix D, Section A.5. In addition, the FY 2020 participation rates in Vigil (2022) should not be compared with the FY 2022 rates because we re-estimated the FY 2020 estimates using new CPS ASEC weights that reflect the 2020 Census. The FY 2020 participation rates presented in Vigil (2022) similarly underestimated the SNAP participation rate in the pre-pandemic FY 2020 period and should be interpreted with caution.

We estimated the number of eligible individuals with a microsimulation model, using two combined years of CPS ASEC data to simulate SNAP eligibility in an average month within the fiscal year. Because the CPS ASEC collects household income data for the previous calendar year, for the FY 2022 estimates we used data from the 2022 CPS ASEC to simulate October through December 2021 and data from the 2023 CPS ASEC to simulate January through September 2022. For the FY 2020 estimates, we used data from the 2020 CPS ASEC to simulate October through December 2019 and data from the 2021 CPS ASEC to simulate January through February 2020.

In the simulation procedure, we applied Federal SNAP eligibility policies to each household in the CPS ASEC. These policies included SNAP household formation rules, gross and net income thresholds, and resource limits. We also considered State-specific policies on vehicle assessment when determining household resources. We imputed some information that is unavailable in the CPS ASEC, such as citizenship status, net income amounts, and resource eligibility. We describe the methodology in detail in Appendix D.

The numerator of the SNAP participation rate is the average monthly number of participants during the fiscal year. We used the FY 2022 SNAP QC data file to estimate the number of eligible SNAP participants. This file is an edited version of the raw data file generated by the SNAP Quality Control System and contains data on the demographic and economic characteristics of a sample of participating households.

We used the SNAP Statistical Summary of Operations (Program Operations) data to weight the SNAP QC data. The Program Operations data provide counts of individuals and households who were issued benefits and the total dollar value of benefits in each month. Before weighting, we adjusted the Program Operations data to exclude participants who are not represented in the SNAP QC data. This includes individuals who received benefits in error and individuals who received temporary disaster benefits in the wake of events such as hurricanes and floods that result in a Major Disaster Declaration with Individual Assistance. In FY 2022, we removed about 7 million individuals for the above-noted reasons, amounting to about 16 percent of individuals in the Program Operations data.

We also excluded 5.6 million categorically eligible participants from the official rates because they did not meet the Federal SNAP income or resource rules. Because limitations of the SNAP QC data prevent us from identifying participating households with resources above the Federal limits, we used a regression equation based on data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) to predict resource ineligibility. Finally, we removed households in Guam and the Virgin Islands because the CPS ASEC does not include them.

Table 1. Estimated individual and household participation rates and benefit receipt rates, FY 2022 Participating

(000) Eligible

(000) Participation rate (percent) with 90 percent confidence interval

Individuals 33,551 38,279 88 +/- 1.5

SNAP households 17,736 19,362 92 +/- 1.6

Benefits (in dollars) 5,664,397 * * +/-

Sources: FY 2022 SNAP Program Operations; FY 2022 SNAP Quality Control; and 2022 and 2023 Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement data.

Note: Participating and eligible totals are monthly averages. The participant totals in this table do not include participants who received temporary disaster benefits or were ineligible for SNAP. Some categorically eligible participants who were not eligible under the Federal rules are also excluded. The eligible totals include only those eligible for SNAP under Federal income or resource rules.

* The use of different data sources to estimate rate numerators and denominators can result in estimates of eligible individuals with a particular characteristic or of potential benefits to eligible individuals that are lower than the corresponding estimates of participants or benefits received by participants. When this happens, estimated rates exceed 100 percent. We do not report estimated rates higher than 100 percent or the associated estimates of eligible individuals, households, or potential benefits. See Appendix D for more information.

Table 2. Estimated SNAP individual participation rates by characteristics, pre-pandemic FY 2020 and FY 2022

Participation rate (percent)

Pre-pandemic

FY 2020

FY 2022

Difference with 90 percent confidence interval

All individuals 81 88 7.1 +/- 1.8† Household size

Small (1 or 2 members) 73 81 7.5 +/- 2.4† Medium (3 or 4 members) 88 97 9.3 +/- 6.7† Large (5 or more members) 88 91 3.8 +/- 11.3

Age Children (age 17 or younger) 99 * * +/- Non-elderly adults (ages 18–59) 84 95 10.7 +/- 2.9† Elderly individuals (ages 60 or older) 50 55 5.3 +/- 2.5†

Living alone 63 71 8.8 +/- 3.8† Not living alone 31 32 1.4 +/- 4.5

Adults ages 18–49 without disabilities in childless householdsa

25.0 +/- 7.4†

Noncitizensb 54 50 -3.3 +/- 8.9 Citizen children living with noncitizen adultsc 66 59 -6.6 +/- 9.2 Household countable income sourced

No earned income 87 95 8.9 +/- 3.1† Earned income 73 76 2.9 +/- 3.8

TANF 56 55 -1.0 +/- 10.3

SSI benefits 82 87 4.8 +/- 5.6 Non-elderly 85 89 3.8 +/- 7.9 Elderly 71 80 9.5 +/- 7.4† Social Security 69 73 3.9 +/- 4.0

Household countable income as a percentage of poverty guidelines

100 percent of poverty guidelines or less 97 * * +/- No income 85 * * +/- 1 to 50 percent * * * +/- 51 to 100 percent 97 94 -3.4 +/- 5.0

Greater than 100 percent of poverty guidelines 40 53 12.8 +/- 3.3† 101 to 130 percent 46 59 13.8 +/- 4.1† 131 percent or more 20 32 12.4 +/- 4.8†

Household benefit as a percentage of maximum benefit

Minimum benefit or less 29 34 5.6 +/- 3.3† 1 to 50 percent 49 51 1.3 +/- 2.5 51 to 99 percent * * * +/- Maximum (100 percent) * * * +/-

Sources: SNAP Program Operations data; SNAP Quality Control data; Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement data for the years shown.

Note: Readers should use caution when interpreting the pre-pandemic FY 2020 rates and comparing them to the FY 2022 participation rates.

* The use of different data sources to estimate rate numerators and denominators can result in estimates of eligible individuals with a particular characteristic that are lower than the corresponding estimates of participants. When this happens, estimated rates exceed 100 percent. We do not report estimated rates higher than 100 percent or the associated estimates of eligible individuals. See Appendix D for more information.

† Indicates significance at the .10 level using a two-tailed t-test.

a With some exceptions, these participants are subject to work requirements and time limits.

b These estimates do not include noncitizens who are outside the SNAP household but reside in the same dwelling unit.

c These estimates include citizen children living in a household with a noncitizen adult, regardless of SNAP participation or eligibility of the adult.

d These income sources are not mutually exclusive.

Table 3. Estimated number of eligible and participating individuals and households, benefits, and participation rates, pre-pandemic FY 2020 and FY 2022

Pre-pandemic FY 2020 FY 2022 Participating individuals

Total (000) 32,883 33,551 Eligible individuals

Total (000) 40,807 38,279 Households (000)

Participating 16,740 17,736 Eligible 20,165 19,362

Benefits ($000)

Benefits received by participants 4,024,533 5,664,397 Potential benefits to eligible individuals * *

Participation rate (percent)

Individual rate 80.6 87.6 Household rate 83.0 91.6

Benefit receipt rate (percent) * *

Sources: SNAP Program Operations data; SNAP Quality Control data; Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement data for the years shown.

Note: Participating and eligible totals are monthly averages. The participant totals in this table do not include participants who received temporary disaster benefits or were ineligible for SNAP. Some categorically eligible participants who were not eligible under the Federal rules are also excluded. The eligible totals include only those eligible for SNAP under Federal income or resource rules.

* The use of different data sources to estimate rate numerators and denominators can result in estimates of eligible individuals with a particular characteristic or of potential benefits to eligible individuals that are lower than the corresponding estimates of participants or benefits received by participants. When this happens, estimated rates exceed 100 percent. We do not report estimated rates higher than 100 percent or the associated estimates of eligible

Table 4. Estimated participation rates and benefit receipt rates, by individual-level demographic characteristics, FY 2022

Demographic characteristic

Individual participation rate

(percent)

Pro-rated benefit receipt rate

(percent) Age

Children (age 17 or younger) * * Non-elderly adults (ages 18–59 ) 95 * Elderly individuals (age 60 or older) 55 70

Living alone 71 * Not living alone 32 33

Noncitizensa 50 62 Citizen children living with noncitizen adultsb 59 72 Employment status of non-elderly adults

Employed 78 98 Not employed * *

Sources: FY 2022 SNAP Program Operations; FY 2022 SNAP Quality Control, and 2022 and 2023 Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement data.

Note: An individual’s prorated benefits are calculated by dividing the household benefit by the number of people in the household. Benefit receipt rates by individual-level characteristics are calculated by summing the prorated benefits of individuals with the selected characteristic.

* The use of different data sources to estimate rate numerators and denominators can result in estimates of eligible individuals with a particular characteristic or of potential benefits to eligible individuals that are lower than the corresponding estimates of participants or benefits received by participants. When this happens, estimated rates exceed 100 percent. We do not report estimated rates higher than 100 percent or the associated estimates of eligible individuals, households, or potential benefits. See Appendix D for more information.

a These estimates do not include noncitizens who are outside the SNAP household but reside in the same dwelling unit.

b These estimates include citizen children living in a household with a noncitizen adult, regardless of SNAP

Table 5. Estimated participation rates and benefit receipt rates, by household-level demographic and economic characteristics, FY 2022

Household characteristic

Household participation rate

(percent)

Benefit receipt rate

(percent)

All households 92 *

Households containing:

Children (age 17 or younger) * * Elderly individuals (age 60 or older) 59 62 Non-elderly adults with disabilities (ages 18–59) * 93

Countable income sourcea

Earned income 77 98

TANF 63 58

SSI 100 *

Social Security 78 95

Countable income as a percentage of

No income * * 1 to 50 percent * * 51 to 100 percent * * 101 to 130 percent 56 77

Sources: FY 2022 SNAP Program Operations; FY 2022 SNAP Quality Control, and 2022 and 2023 Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement data.

* The use of different data sources to estimate rate numerators and denominators can result in estimates of eligible individuals with a particular characteristic or of potential benefits to eligible individuals that are lower than the corresponding estimates of participants or benefits received by participants. When this happens, estimated rates exceed 100 percent. We do not report estimated rates higher than 100 percent or the associated estimates of eligible a These income sources are not mutually exclusive.

REFERENCES

Cunnyngham, Karen. “Trends in Food Stamp Program Participation Rates: 1994 to 2000.”

Alexandria, VA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, 2002.

Leftin, Joshua, Esa Eslami, and Mark Strayer. “Trends in Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Participation Rates: Fiscal Year 2002 to Fiscal Year 2009.” Alexandria, VA: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, 2011.

Leftin, Josh, Mia Monkovic, Francisco Yang, Nima Rahimi, Andrew Wen, and Alma Vigil.

“Technical Documentation for the Fiscal Year 2022 Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Quality Control Database and the QC Minimodel.” Washington, DC: Mathematica, 2024. Available at https://snapqcdata.net/. Accessed July 10, 2024.

Monkovic, Mia. “Characteristics of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Households:

Fiscal Year 2022.” Alexandria, VA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, 2024.

Passel, Jeffery S., and D’Vera Cohn. “A Portrait of Unauthorized Immigrants in the United States.” Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, April 2009.

Trippe, Carole, and Scott Cody. “Trends in Food Stamp Program Participation Rates: Focus on August 1995.” Alexandria, VA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, 1997.

Vigil, Alma. “Trends in Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Participation Rates: Fiscal Year 2010 to Fiscal Year 2017.” Alexandria, VA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, 2019.

Vigil, Alma. “Trends in Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Participation Rates: Fiscal Year 2016 to Fiscal Year 2020.” Alexandria, VA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, 2022.

Wolkwitz, Kari. “Trends in Food Stamp Program Participation Rates: 1999 to 2005.”

Alexandria, VA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, 2007.

https://snapqcdata.net/

APPENDIX A

DETAILED PARTICIPATION RATE ESTIMATES FOR FY 2022

Table A.1. Estimated individual and household participation rates and benefit receipt rates, FY 2022

(QC)

Eligible

(CPS)

Participation rate

(QC/CPS)

Individuals 33,551,236 38,278,702 87.6 SNAP households 17,736,470 19,362,488 91.6 Benefits 5,664,396,632 * *

Sources: SNAP Program Operations; SNAP Quality Control; Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement data.

Note: Participating and eligible totals are monthly averages. The participant totals in this table do not include participants who received disaster assistance or were ineligible for SNAP. Some categorically eligible participants who were not eligible under the Federal rules are also excluded. The eligible totals include only those eligible for SNAP under Federal income or resource rules.

* The use of different data sources to estimate rate numerators and denominators can result in estimates of eligible individuals with a particular characteristic or of potential benefits to eligible individuals that are lower than the corresponding estimates of participants or benefits received by participants. When this happens, estimated rates exceed 100 percent. We do not report estimated rates higher than 100 percent or the associated estimates of eligible

CPS = Current Population Survey; QC = SNAP Quality Control.

Table A.2. Estimated individual participation rates by household size, FY 2022

Participation rate

(QC/CPS)

Individuals by household size

1 person 10,483,736 10,536,239 99.5 2 people 5,674,020 9,457,590 60.0 3 people 5,924,813 6,151,031 96.3 4 people 5,470,793 5,574,179 98.1 5 people 3,247,750 3,428,037 94.7 6 or more people 2,750,124 3,131,627 87.8

Individuals in all households 33,551,236 38,278,702 87.6

Sources: SNAP Program Operations; SNAP Quality Control; Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement data.

Note: Participating and eligible totals are monthly averages. The participant totals in this table do not include participants who received disaster assistance or were ineligible for SNAP. Some categorically eligible participants who were not eligible under the Federal rules are also excluded. The eligible totals include only those eligible for SNAP under Federal income or resource rules.

* The use of different data sources to estimate rate numerators and denominators can result in estimates of eligible individuals with a particular characteristic that are lower than the corresponding estimates of participants. When this happens, estimated rates exceed 100 percent. We do not report estimated rates higher than 100 percent or the associated estimates of eligible individuals, households, or potential benefits. See Appendix D for more information.

Table A.3. Estimated individual participation rates by demographic characteristics, FY 2022

Participation rate

(QC/CPS)

All individuals 33,551,236 38,278,702 87.6

Age.

Children (age 17 or younger) 13,447,178 * * Preschool age (ages 0–4) 3,977,308 * * School age (ages 5–17) 9,469,870 * *

Non-elderly adults (ages 18–59 ) 14,175,654 14,994,238 94.5 Elderly individuals (age 60 or older) 5,928,404 10,712,902 55.3

Living alone 4,501,903 6,308,367 71.4 Not living alone 1,426,501 4,404,535 32.4

2,971,624 2,979,219 99.7

Noncitizensb 1,230,971 2,445,108 50.3 Citizen children living with noncitizen adultsc 1,891,027 3,181,808 59.4 Employment status of non-elderly adults

Employed 3,360,914 4,335,483 77.5 Not employed 10,814,739 * *

Individuals by household composition

Living with children 20,834,629 * * Single-adult household 12,494,646 * * Married-head household 4,113,492 6,395,370 64.3 Other households 4,226,491 4,575,568 92.4

Not living with children 12,716,607 17,937,331 70.9

Gender

Male 14,322,922 17,086,293 83.8 Female 19,228,314 21,192,409 90.7

Metropolitan status

Urban 27,698,750 32,069,015 86.4 Rural 5,852,486 6,209,687 94.2

Sources: SNAP Program Operations; SNAP Quality Control; and Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement data.

Note: Participating and eligible totals are monthly averages. The participant totals in this table do not include participants who received disaster assistance or were ineligible for SNAP. Some categorically eligible participants who were not eligible under the Federal rules are also excluded. The eligible totals include only those eligible for SNAP under Federal income or resource rules.

* The use of different data sources to estimate rate numerators and denominators can result in estimates of eligible individuals with a particular characteristic that are lower than the corresponding estimates of participants. When this happens, estimated rates exceed 100 percent. We do not report estimated rates higher than 100 percent or the associated estimates of eligible individuals, households, or potential benefits. See Appendix D for more information.

a With some exceptions, these participants are subject to work requirements and time limits.

b These estimates do not include noncitizens who are outside the SNAP household but reside in the same dwelling unit.

c These estimates include citizen children living in a household with a noncitizen adult, regardless of SNAP

Table A.4. Estimated individual participation rates by economic characteristics of households, FY 2022

Economic characteristic

Participation rate

(QC/CPS)

All individuals 33,551,236 38,278,702 87.6 Household countable income sourcesa

No income 6,522,612 * * No earned income 22,141,742 23,196,198 95.5 Earned income 11,409,494 15,082,504 75.6

TANF 1,590,585 2,873,040 55.4

Earned income 332,448 903,194 36.8 No earned income 1,258,136 1,969,846 63.9

No TANF 31,960,651 35,405,662 90.3 Earned income 11,077,045 14,179,310 78.1 No earned income 20,883,606 21,226,352 98.4

Social Security 7,633,322 10,496,218 72.7 Household countable income as a percentage of poverty guidelines

100 percent of poverty or less 27,779,707 * * No income 6,522,612 * * 1 to 50 percent 7,924,084 * * 51 to 100 percent 13,333,011 14,252,267 93.6

Greater than 100 percent of poverty 5,771,529 10,862,072 53.1 101 to 130 percent 4,989,869 8,415,476 59.3 131 percent or more 781,660 2,446,597 31.9

Household monthly SNAP benefit Minimum benefit or less 865,667 2,540,855 34.1 Greater than the minimum to $150 3,639,191 6,064,129 60.0

$151 to $300 9,019,123 * * $301 to $450 3,639,902 5,095,052 71.4 $451 to $600 5,221,158 6,434,895 81.1 $601 or more 11,166,196 * *

Benefit as a percentage of maximum benefit Low benefits (1 to 50 percent) 7,179,690 14,213,529 50.5

1 to 25 percent 2,340,326 6,166,943 37.9 26 to 50 percent 4,839,363 8,046,587 60.1

High benefits (51 to 99 percent) 14,083,637 * * 51 to 75 percent 7,014,981 8,054,671 87.1 76 to 99 percent 7,068,656 * *

Maximum (100 percent) 12,287,909 * *

Sources: SNAP Program Operations; SNAP Quality Control; Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement data.

Note: Participating and eligible totals are monthly averages. The participant totals in this table do not include participants who received disaster assistance or were ineligible for SNAP. Some categorically eligible participants who were not eligible under the Federal rules are also excluded. The eligible totals include only those eligible for SNAP under Federal income or resource rules.

* The use of different data sources to estimate rate numerators and denominators can result in estimates of eligible individuals with a particular characteristic or of potential benefits to eligible individuals…