Archeological GPR Survey - GA NP CHCH MULTI (1).pdf

National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior

Southeast Archeological Center

Archeological GPR Survey for Federal

Highways Resurfacing Project, Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park

NP-CHCH Multi (1) and Multi (2)

PMIS No. 246003

GPR Survey for Federal Highways Resurfacing Project – CHCH

SOUTHEAST ARCHEOLOGICAL CENTER

The Southeast Archeological Center (SEAC) is a support operation of the National Park Service’s Southeast Region (Interior Regions 1, 2, and 4). In assisting parks with their cultural resource management needs, SEAC facilitates long-term protection of archeological resources and compiles and utilizes the archeological information obtained from these resources. In addition to annually generating numerous archeological reports for the work they conduct, as mandated by federal law and park operations, SEAC is the repository for over six million artifacts that make up the Southeast Region’s research collections and contributes to its cultural database. SEAC is staffed by professional NPS archeologists and regularly employs archeology students from anthropology programs throughout the Southeast.

For more information contact:

Southeast Archeological Center 2035 East Paul Dirac Drive Johnson Building, Suite 120 Tallahassee, Florida 32310 Telephone: 850-580-3011 Fax: 850-580-2884 https://www.nps.gov/seac/index.htm

ON THE COVER

Exposed remnants of paved stone gutters along Brotherton Road at Chickamauga Battlefield in Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park (CHCH). Photo credits: Lexie Lowe, Archeological Technician, Southeast Archeological Center (April 2023).

https://www.nps.gov/seac/index.htm

Draft Approved By: ________________________________________ Date: __________ Susan Vezeau, Ph.D., Regional Archeologist

Draft Approved By: ________________________________________ Date: __________ Park Cultural Resource Manager

Final Approved By: ________________________________________ Date: __________ Susan Vezeau, Ph.D., Regional Archeologist

Archeological GPR Survey for Federal Highways Resurfacing Project, Chickamauga and Chattanooga

National Military Park

NP-CHCH Multi (1) and Multi (2)

PMIS No. 246003

SEAC Accession No. 03260

CHCH Accession No. 00412

Prepared by:

Lexie Lowe, MA Oscar A. Rothrock III, MS

Tracy Lovingood, MA

Interior Region 1, 2, 4 National Park Service

Southeast Archeological Center 2035 E Paul Dirac Drive

Johnson Building Suite 120 Tallahassee, FL 32310

Performed For:

Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park

3370 Lafayette Road Fort Oglethorpe, GA 30742

September 22, 2023 i

MANAGEMENT SUMMARY

Project Title: Archeological GPR Survey for Federal Highways Resurfacing Project

Project Description: In April and July 2023, the Southeast Archeological Center (SEAC) conducted archeological investigations in the form of subsurface and geophysical surveys that aimed to identify and document the presence and extent of historic roadbeds and associated stone features along four different road corridors at Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park (CHCH) on behalf of the National Park Service (NPS). The archeological services outlined in this report were in direct support of Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) (54 U.S.C. § 306108) compliance for the proposed and anticipated road rehabilitation and resurfacing work contracted to the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). In 2022, a multi-year project to rehabilitate and resurface several roadways in CHCH began. The research design included pavement removal and base excavations for the reconstruction of the Glenn-Kelly/Battleline/Poe roads. During these operations the contractor started work prior to the mandatory cultural resource monitors being present and created an adverse effect when they uncovered a series of historic stone-lined ditches at the intersection of Dyer Road and Glenn-Kelly Road. This action ended in a stop-work order which eventually resulted in park management entering into of a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) between the NPS (CHCH), FHWA, and the Georgia State Historic Preservation Office (GA SHPO). All parties agreed that any continuation of the work, or any future road rehabilitation work in CHCH will operate under the mitigation plan, which stipulates that an archeological survey will be conducted to identify the presence and extent of historic roadways and associated stone features along road corridors. This archeological survey was scheduled for the purpose of that undertaking and is the subject of this report. This project was funded and tracked under the NPS Planning, Environment & Public Comment (PEPC) Project Id No. 100088 and NPS Project Management Information System (PMIS) ID Nos. 234347, 246003, and 234350.

Location: Brotherton Road, Glenn-Viniard Road (Chickamauga-Vittetoe Road), Dyer Road, and Vittetoe Road (Snodgrass Hill Road); Chickamauga Battlefield; Fort Oglethorpe, Catoosa and Walker Counties, Georgia.

Area Surveyed: Approximately 4 miles (6.43 kilometers) of roadway corridors.

Principal Investigator(s): Oscar A. Rothrock III, MS; Tracy Lovingood MA, RPA; Lexie Lowe, MA, RPA

Purpose of Work: Compliance with Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (54 U.S.C.

§ 306108) for the protection of historic properties (36 CFR 800) and in concurrence with Memorandum of Agreement No. HP-220422-001.

Eligibility: The Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park was listed as a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 1966 (Reference No. 66000274) citing the following areas of significance: Architecture, Art, Conservation, Landscape Architecture, Military, Politics/Government, and Social History.

Curation: All collected artifacts, field notes, and other data and deliverables created as a result of this project will be catalogued and curated at SEAC under CHCH Accession No. 00412 and SEAC Accession No. 03260.

ii

Table of Contents Management Summary ............................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1 Introduction

Project Description Brotherton Road and Picnic Parking Glenn-Viniard Road (and Vittetoe-Chickamauga Road) and Parking Tour Stop 6 Dyer Road and Parking Vittetoe Road (and Snodgrass Hill Road) and Parking

Report Organization

Chapter 2 Environmental Background Environment Introduction Physiography Climate Flora Fauna

Chapter 3 Cultural Background Pre-Contact History

Pre-Clovis Period Paleoindian Period Archaic Period Woodland Period Mississippian Period

Historic Context American Indian Occupation & Early American Settlement American Settlement of the Landscape (1839 – 1861) The Civil War (1861 - 1865) The Postbellum Landscape (1865 - 1890) The Commemorative Landscape: Chickamauga & Chattanooga National Military Park National Park Service Administration (1933 – Present)

Chapter 4 Previous Archeology Brown and Evans 1980 (SEAC Accession No. 00525) Johnson 1984 (SEAC Accession No. 00676) Wild 1990 (SEAC Accession No. 00873) Cooper 2001 (SEAC Accession No. 01498) Cornelison et al. 2004 (SEAC Accession No. 01854) Kidd 2006 (SEAC Accession No. 002042) Seibert (2011) (SEAC Accession No. 02334) Alexander (2014) Gregory et al. (2022)

Chapter 5 Archeological Methods Background Review Archeological Survey iii

Pedestrian Survey Subsurface Testing Geophysical Survey

Post-Processing GPR Data Collection Strategy Laboratory Analysis and Curation Compliance with NAGPRA and Treatment of Human Remains

Chapter 6 Results of Investigation Brotherton Road (Route 102)

Pedestrian Survey and Subsurface Testing Geophysical Survey

Brotherton Grid-01 (Subgrids 1 through 3) Glenn Viniard Road (Chickamauga-Vittetoe Road , Route 503)

Pedestrian Survey and Subsurface Testing Geophysical Survey

Glenn Viniard Grid-01 Glenn Viniard Grid-02 Glenn Viniard Grid-03 (Subgrids 1 and 2) Glenn Viniard Grid-04 (Subgrids 1 and 2) Glenn Viniard Grid-05

Dyer Road (Route 101) Pedestrian Survey and Subsurface Testing Geophysical Survey

Dyer Grid-01 (Subgrids 1 through 5) Dyer Grid-02 (Subgrids 1 and 2) Dyer Grid-03 (Subgrids 1 and 2)

Vittetoe Road ( Snodgrass Hill Road, Route 122) Pedestrian Survey and Subsurface Testing Geophysical Survey

Snodgrass Grid-01 Snodgrass Grid-02

Snodgrass Hill Cemetery and Tower Survey UXO Survey Sign Installation – Glenn Falls Trail Maintenance Compound Service Road

Chapter 7 Conclusions and Recommendations Conclusions Recommendations

References

Appendix A: Shovel Test Summary – Brotherton Road

Appendix B: Shovel Test Summary – Glenn Viniard Road

Appendix C: Shovel Test Summary – Dyer Road

Appendix D: Shovel Test Summary – Snodgrass Road iv

Table of Figures

Figure 1-1. Project locations for road corridors surveyed at Chickamauga Battlefield at CHCH Figure 1-2. Scheduled project areas for FY23 Road Rehabilitation Project at CHCH. Image provided and tracked under PEPC Project Id No. 100088 Figure 3-1. "Evolution of the Road System" at Chickamauga Battlefield in CHCH (Adapted from

Hamburger 1998 [Sheet 6 of 15]) Figure 3-2. "Roadway Construction” sketch showing road reconstruction methods utilized at

CHCH (Brooks 1998 [Sheet 11 of 15]) Figure 3-3. Stone gutters being placed along grade cut Brotherton Road, c. 1890s; view in Winfrey

Field looking north/northwest and/or eastward along road (McGinnis et al. 2004:2- 70[Figure 2-28])

Figure 3-4. "Roadway Construction” sketch showing paving and drainage construction methods utilized at Chickamauga Battlefield in Chattanooga and Chickamauga National Military Park. Adapted from (Brooks 1998 [Sheet 11 of 15])

Figure 3-5. Horse-drawn gravel spreader, CHCH Tour Roads, ca. 1890s. (Library of Congress, Washington, DC [LOC], HAER GA, 24-FOOG.V, 1--43)

Figure 3-6. Horse-drawn roller, CHCH Tour Roads, ca. 1890s. (LOC, HAER GA, 24-FOOG.V, 1—44)

Figure 3-7. Steam roller owned by park, in operation, CHCH Tour Roads, ca. 1900 (LOC, HAER

GA, 24-FOOG.V, 1--45)

Figure 3-8. Grand Review, U.S.V.I., Chickamauga, Ga. ca. 1898 (LOC, Pan US Military – Army No. 83)

Figure 3-9. View of paving Brotherton Road, Willich's Line, road widened, December 3, 1898.

Submitted with Engineers Report for November 1898 (CHCH, NPS 2023)

Figure 3-10. View near summit of ridge showing paving under construction along Reed's Bridge Road. Reed. C.&C.N.P. Com'n. March 12, 1901 (CHCH, NPS 2023)

Figure 3-11. View of paved gutter on the Jay's Mill and Alexander Road. Reed. C.& C.N.P. Com’n.

March 12, 1901 (CHCH, NPS 2023)

Figure 3-12. Stone gutters along road along Snodgrass Hill at Chickamauga Battlefield (Haas 1997)

Figure 3-13. Report of the Office to the Engineer, Edward E. Betts, Engineer, CHCH Commission, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1906/Annual Report 1906, August 11, 1906 (CHCH Archives, CHCH Acc. 205, Cat. No. 3199, Box 1, Folder 19)

Figure 6-1. Extent of paved stone gutters along Brotherton Road based on archeological investigations in April 2023

Figure 6-2. Exposed stone gutters visible on the south side of Brotherton Road during pedestrian surveys

Figure 6-3. Stone paved gutters identified in ST No. 15 along south side of Brotherton Road Figure 6-4. Stone gutters identified along the south side of Brotherton Road, STP-61 (left) and

STP-21 (right). Note the stone alignments, running parallel versus running perpendicular to roadway

Figure 6-5. STP 157B fully excavated and revealing thick concrete pavement beneath modern asphalt layer at northeast intersection of Brotherton Road and Lafayette Road

Figure 6-6. Brotherton Grid-01 (Subgrids 1-3) running across Brotherton Road Figure 6-7. Brotherton Grid-01: Results of high frequency band of GPR survey (Hilbert Transform) along Brotherton Road v

Figure 6-8. Brotherton Grid-01: Results of low frequency band of GPR survey (Hilbert Transform) along Brotherton Road

Figure 6-9. Extent of paved stone gutters along Glenn-Viniard Road based on archeological investigations in July 2023

Figure 6-10. GPR survey locations for Glenn-Viniard 1 and Glenn-Viniard 2 parallel to Chickamauga-Vittetoe Road (July 2023)

Figure 6-11. GPR survey locations for Glenn-Viniard Grid-03 (Subgrids 1-2) and Glenn-Viniard Grid-04 (Subgrids 1-2) parallel to Chickamauga-Vittetoe Road

Figure 6-12. GPR survey location for Glenn-Viniard Grid-05 across Chickamauga-Vittetoe Road Figure 6-13. Glenn-Viniard Grid-01: Results of high frequency band (raw data image) of GPR survey parallel to Chickamauga-Vittetoe Road Figure 6-14. Glenn-Viniard Grid-02: Results of high frequency band (raw data image) of GPR survey parallel to Chickamauga-Vittetoe Road Figure 6-15. Glenn-Viniard Grid-03: Results of high frequency band (raw data image) of GPR survey parallel to Chickamauga-Vittetoe Road Figure 6-16. Glenn-Viniard Grid-04: Results of high frequency band (raw data image) of GPR survey parallel to Chickamauga-Vittetoe Road Figure 6-17. Viniard Grid-05: Results of high frequency band of GPR survey (Hilbert Transform) across Chickamauga-Vittetoe Road Figure 6-18. Extent of paved stone gutters along Dyer Road based on archeological investigations in July 2023 Figure 6-19. GPR survey location for Dyer Grid-01 (Grids 1-5) across Dyer Road Figure 6-20. GPR survey location for Dyer Grid-02 (Subgrids 1-2) and Dyer Grid-03 (Subgrids1-2) parallel to Dyer Road Figure 6-21. Map of Chickamauga Park (1896) showing zoomed extent of Dyer Road (Betts and

Park 1896). ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 6-22. Dyer Grid-01: Results of high frequency band (raw data image) of GPR survey across

Dyer Road. Note callouts to specific anomalies observed in the time slice data Figure 6-23. Dyer Grid-02: Results of high frequency band (raw data image) of GPR survey parallel to Dyer Road Figure 6-24. Dyer Grid-03: Results of high frequency band (Hilbert Transform) of GPR survey parallel to Dyer Road Figure 6-25. Extent of paved stone gutters along Vittetoe Road (Snodgrass Hill Road) based on archeological investigations in July 2023 Figure 6-26. GPR survey location for Snodgrass Grid-01 and Snodgrass Grid-02 running across and parallel to Vittetoe Road leading up to Snodgrass Hill Figure 6-27. Snodgrass Grid-01: Results of low frequency band (raw data image) of GPR survey along Vittetoe Road. Note the 2-3 m (6.5-9.8 ft) wide linear anomaly Figure 6-28. Snodgrass Grid-02: Results of low frequency band (raw data image) of GPR survey parallel to Vittetoe Road Figure 6-29. Red arrow showing “citizens’ graves” on map from Dolton’s call for veterans’ accounts (Dolton 1893: 362-363 [Figure 7]) Figure 6-30. Map of Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park (Ramey 1895). Note:

location of tower and six dashed lines most likely indicative of burials on Snodgrass Hill

Figure 6-31. West Williams living in Snodgrass House, c. 1890s (CHCH, NPS 2023) Figure 6-32. GPR survey location for Snodgrass Hill Figure 6-33. Snodgrass Hill Grid: Results of high frequency band (Hilbert Transform) of basket weave GPR survey on top of Snodgrass Hill (July 2023). Note: Footprints of vi observation tower are highlighted in red (visible in time slices 0.7 – 1.2 meters below ground surface)

Figure 6-35. Snodgrass Hill Grid: Results of low frequency band (Hilbert Transform) of basket weave GPR survey on top of Snodgrass Hill

Figure 6-35. 35th Ohio Infantry Monument on Snodgrass Hill, ca. 1900. Note the observation tower and possible fenced grave/cemetery in background indicated by black arrows (CHCH, NPS 2023)

Figure 6-36. GPR survey location in search of the potential buried UXO east of the maintenance compound

Figure 6-37. Possible UXO anomalies 1 and 2 Figure 6-38. Possible UXO anomaly 4 Figure 6-39. Possible UXO anomalies 3, 5, and 6 Figure 6-40. UXO Grids, Subgrids 01-02, high frequency time slices (ha 1-21 left to right) with

Hilbert transformation Figure 6-41. UXO Grids, Subgrids 01-02, low frequency time slices (hb 1-21 left to right) with

Hilbert transformation Figure 6-42. Potential areas for buried UXO demarcated east of the CHCH maintenance compound and behind the carpentry shed Figure 6-43. Location of Glenn Falls trail sign installation on Lookout Mountain (July 2023) Figure 6-44. Extent of disturbance examined along an excavated service road in a field leading from the maintenance compound

Table of Tables Table 6-1. Brotherton Road GPR grids Table 6-2. Glenn Viniard Road GPR grids Table 6-3. Dyer Road GPR grids Table 6-4. Snodgrass GPR grids Table 6-5. GPR identified possible UXOs

Appendices

Appendix A: Shovel Test Summary – Brotherton Road Appendix B: Shovel Test Summary – Glenn Viniard Road Appendix C: Shovel Test Summary – Dyer Road Appendix D: Shovel Test Summary – Snodgrass Road vii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many thanks to the CHCH staff and Denver Service Center staff (DSC) staff that supported the coordination and completion of this project. In particular, thank you to Dino Silomagic, CHCH Maintenance Technician, for serving as the excavator operator during subsurface testing and assisted archeologists in the field; thank you to Abbey Vander Sluis, CHCH Museum Curator and Acting Chief of Resource Management, for coordinating housing and providing curation and accession info for this project; thank you to Jim Ogden, CHCH Historian, for providing invaluable insights and documentary evidence regarding the construction and history of the park’s tour roads;

and thank you to Julia Poland, CHCH Cultural Resources Manager and Acting Superintendent, for supporting our efforts and consulting on adaptive field strategies that resulted in the successful execution of this project. Much appreciation to Chance Wills, SEAC Archeological Technician, who supported efforts back in the lab and the generation of report tables. Thank you to Robert Hellmann, SEAC Archeologist, for providing field assistance and technical expertise during the first trip of the project. Special thanks to Nikki Newhouse and Sierra Sutton, Student Conservation Association (SCA) Interns from Cumberland Island National Seashore (CUIS), whose hard work and technical skill in the field was a huge help and much appreciated. And much appreciation to Michael Seibert and Kayleigh Hendley of CUIS, and Daniel Jones of SCA, for permitting and coordinating the assistance of SCA interns at CHCH. Thank you to Mike Tomkosky and Trevor Smart, DSC Project Managers, who consulted with SEAC archeologists in the development of this project and funding. Thank you to Dr. Susan Vezeau, SEAC Archeology Branch Manager and Regional Archeologist, for providing administrative support and document review throughout the entirety of this project.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

In April and July 2023, the National Park Service’s Southeast Archeological Center (SEAC) conducted archeological investigations in the form of subsurface and geophysical surveys that aimed to identify and document the presence and extent of historic roadbeds and associated stone features along four different road corridors at Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park (CHCH) on behalf of the National Park Service (NPS). These archeological services outlined in this report were in direct support of Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) (54 U.S.C. § 306108) compliance for the proposed and anticipated road rehabilitation and resurfacing work contracted to the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). This project was funded and tracked under the NPS Planning, Environment & Public Comment (PEPC) Project ID No. 100088, entitled Road Rehabilitation of Snodgrass, Dyer, Brotherton, Glenn-Viniard Roads and Parking Areas, and three NPS Project Management Information System (PMIS) projects:

1) PMIS Project ID: 234347, entitled Repair, Rehabilitation, Reconstruction of 1.96 Miles of Rt. 0102 Brotherton Road

2) PMIS Project ID: 234350, entitled Repair, Rehabilitation, Reconstruction of 0.78 Miles of Rt. 0503 Glenn Viniard Road

3) PMIS Project ID: 246003, entitled Repair, Rehabilitation, Reconstruction of Roads and Parking

Located in southern Tennessee and northwest Georgia (Figure 1-1), CHCH commemorates the Battle of Chickamauga and the Battle of Chattanooga, two pivotal and strategic Civil War battlegrounds where Union and Confederate troops fought for control of the area known as the “Gateway to the Deep South” in 1863. Following the Civil War, from Reconstruction and the Commemorative Era through the NPS Era and Mission 66, the inroads to these battlefields and park lands have been maintained and rehabilitated continuously. In 2022, the most recent phase of rehabilitation of these roadways, and connected parking and pull-off areas, began with a multi-year project that included pavement removal and base excavations. During this operation the contractor uncovered a series of historic stone-lined ditches at the intersection of Dyer Road and Glenn-Kelly Road. This action ended in a stop-work order which eventually resulted in park management entering into of a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) between the NPS, CHCH, FHWA, and the Georgia State Historic Preservation Office (GA SHPO). All parties agreed that any continuation of the work, or any future road rehabilitation work, in CHCH will operate under the mitigation plan, which stipulates that an archeological survey will be conducted to identify the presence and extent of historic roadways and associated stone features along road corridors.

Figure 1-1. Project locations for road corridors surveyed at Chickamauga Battlefield at CHCH.

PROJECT DESCRIPTION

There were four primary road corridors within the Chickamauga Battlefield that were surveyed as the areas of potential effect (APE): (1) Brotherton Road, (2) Glenn-Viniard Road, (3) Dyer Road, and (4) and Snodgrass Road (Vittetoe Road), along with their associated parking and pull-off areas (Figure 1-2). The APE for each of these project areas includes approximately 50 feet (ft) (15 meters [m]) from the centerline of each road corridor and adjoining parking areas. The project areas and their anticipated rehabilitation work are described briefly below, with road descriptions copied from PEPC 100088 (PEPC 2023).

Figure 1-2. Scheduled project areas for FY23 Road Rehabilitation Project at CHCH. Image provided and tracked under PEPC Project Id No. 100088.

BROTHERTON ROAD AND PICNIC PARKING

Brotherton Road (Route 102) is a 1.96-mile (3.15-kilometer [km]) asphalt surfaced two-way, two-lane, Functional Class II Connector Park Road that extends east from Lafayette Road to Jays Mill Road. The road is approximately 15 ft (4.58 m) wide with unpaved shoulders. The rehabilitation work for Schedules A and B in this APE includes pavement rehabilitation or reconstruction, placing aggregate surface course on unpaved parking pull-offs, cleaning culverts in place, ditch reconditioning, the removal and resetting of stone masonry headwalls, repointing stone masonry headwalls, replacing signs and pavement markings, turf establishment on disturbed areas, and installation of loop detectors, conduit, and utility boxes for traffic counter system.

Brotherton Picnic Parking (Route 924) is an approximately 880 square yard (sq yd) (736 square meter [sq m]) asphalt parking area. The work includes the removal of existing asphalt pavement, the placement of asphalt concrete pavement, placing aggregate-topsoil course, replacing signing and pavement markings, topsoil, turf establishment on disturbed areas, the removal of existing concrete sidewalk, curb and gutter, and construction of concrete sidewalk, accessibility ramp, curb and gutter.

GLENN-VINIARD ROAD (AND VITTETOE-CHICKAMAUGA ROAD) AND PARKING TOUR STOP 6

Glenn Viniard Road (Route 503) is a 0.78-mile (1.26 km) asphalt surfaced one-way, one-lane, Functional Class I Principal Park Road that extends northwest from Lafayette Road to Chickamauga-Vittetoe Road and is approximately 18 feet (5.49 m) wide with unpaved shoulders.

According to the map provided by the park (see Figure 1-2), Schedule C will occur along Glenn- Viniard Road, while Schedule D of the road rehabilitative work for this corridor will continue on through a portion of Chickamauga-Vittetoe Road that extends between Glenn-Viniard and Glenn- Kelly Road. The rehabilitation work in this APE includes pavement rehabilitation or reconstruction, cleaning and repairing existing drainage structures, placing aggregate-topsoil course on the shoulders, replacing signs and pavement markings, topsoil, and turf establishment on disturbed areas.

Parking Tour Stop 6 (Route 936) is an approximately 2,670 sq yd (2,232 sq m) asphalt parking area. The work includes pavement preservation treatment, placing aggregate-topsoil course on the shoulders, replacing signs and pavement markings, topsoil, and turf establishment on disturbed areas.

DYER ROAD AND PARKING

Dyer Road (Route 101) is a 0.76-mile (1.22 km) asphalt surfaced two-lane, two-way, Functional Class II Connector Park Road that extends west from Lafayette Road to Chickamauga Vittetoe Road and is approximately 18 ft wide (5.49 m) with unpaved shoulders. rehabilitation work in this APE includes pavement rehabilitation or reconstruction, placing aggregate-topsoil course on the shoulders, cleaning culverts in place, ditch reconditioning; repointing stone masonry headwalls, replacing signs and pavement markings, and turf establishment on disturbed areas.

Dyer House Parking (Route 923) is an approximately 78 sq yd (65 sq m) asphalt parking area. The work includes removal of existing asphalt pavement, repairing soft areas with sub-excavation and placement of aggregate base course, placement of asphalt concrete pavement, placing aggregate-topsoil course on the shoulders, replacing signs and pavement markings, turf establishment on disturbed areas, and remove and install wheel stops.

VITTETOE ROAD (AND SNODGRASS HILL ROAD) AND PARKING

Vittetoe Road (Route 112; also appears as Snodgrass Hill Road on some reference maps) is a 0.46-mile (0.74 km) asphalt surfaced two-lane, two-way, Functional Class I Principal Park Road, and extends west from Glenn-Kelly Road. This road is approximately 18 ft (5.49 m) wide with unpaved shoulders. This road junctions with the main part of Vittetoe Road and goes up to Snodgrass Hill, which is why it is often referred to as Snodgrass Road, to differentiate between the two sections of road. The rehabilitation work in this APE includes the removal of existing asphalt pavement, repairing soft areas with sub-excavation and the placement of aggregate base course, the placement of asphalt concrete pavement, placing aggregate-topsoil course, cleaning culverts in place, ditch reconditioning, the removal and replacement of existing culverts, the removal and resetting of stone masonry headwalls, repointing stones masonry headwalls, replacing signage and pavement marking, and turf establishment on disturbed areas.

The Snodgrass Cabin Parking area (Route 928) and the Snodgrass Hill Parking area (Route

929) are approximately 627 sq yd (524 sq m) and 354 sq yd (296 sq m) asphalt parking areas, respectively. The rehabilitation work in this APE includes the removal of existing asphalt pavement, repairing soft areas with sub-excavation and placement of aggregate base course, the placement of asphalt concrete pavement (with brown aggregate in top lift), placing aggregate-topsoil course, replacing signing and pavement markings, topsoil, and turf establishment on disturbed areas.

REPORT ORGANIZATION

The results of the Archeological GPR Survey for Federal Highways Resurfacing Project, Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park are presented herein. This first chapter has introduced the work and area of investigation, and Chapter 2 includes a brief summary of CHCH’s environmental setting. Chapter 3 is the cultural background for CHCH and the surrounding area.

Chapter 4 is a synopsis and overview of previous archeological investigations conducted on CHCH roads. Chapter 5 outlines the archeological methods employed to carry out this investigation.

Chapter 6 describes the results of the archeological survey. Chapter 7 summarizes the survey and provides recommendations for the management of the historic paved gutters at CHCH.

CHAPTER 2 ENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUND

The following environmental background section is predominately excerpted from Brewer’s (1987) An Archeological Overview and Assessment of Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park. Additional information that post-dates this description is included as cited within the text.

ENVIRONMENT INTRODUCTION

Straddling Walker County and Catoosa County, the Chickamauga Battlefield is located in northwest Georgia in the watershed drained by South Chickamauga Creek in the Ridge and Valley province. The basin occupied by the creek is a physiographic extension of the Great Valley of Tennessee. The primary drainage feature of South Chickamauga Creek flows in a northerly direction for approximately 30 miles and empties into the Tennessee River at Chattanooga. The size of the creek fluctuates considerably, from a sluggish slow-moving stream in late summer to a raging torrent capable of inundating hundreds of acres in the spring. At its maximum size, the creek is larger than several of the streams designated as rivers in lower Georgia. Several early writers have referred to it as the Chickamauga River (Haywood 1823:219, 434). The lowland areas of the Ridge and Valley province are situated about 210-240 m (700-800 ft) above sea level, while the higher ridges extend up to nearly 480 m (1,600 ft) above sea level (Hodler and Schretter 1986 [2021]).

PHYSIOGRAPHY

The park is situated in the Cumberland Mountains of the southern Blue Ridge, which cuts southwest through Tennessee and Georgia. The land consists of broad valleys and coves separated by high ridges and numerous streams (NPS 1987:16). This distribution of valleys and ridges was significant to the westward expansion of the American colonies during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. And strongly influenced colonial migration in the south and the advancement of Union troops during the Civil War (Chowns 2006 [2018]). Geologically, the area is a stratified limestone deposit that is susceptible to erosion. The weathering of underlying rock strata has created essentially two types of terrain. In the northwest portion of the battlefield, Knox dolomite has weathered to form a band of rolling, round-topped hills. The rest of the battlefield has a gently rolling terrain with shallow soils, exposed rock outcroppings, and areas with flat, horizontal, and underlying rock strata (NPS 1987:16).

CLIMATE

Georgia’s position at subtropical latitudes, and proximity to the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, yields a climate characterized by long, hot, humid summers and shorter, milder winters.

Recent climatic data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) reports precipitation rates of more than 70 inches (177.8 cm) in the mountainous northeastern portion of Georgia, and approximately 45 inches (114.3 cm) in the central and southeastern regions of the state (Frankson et al. 2022).

FLORA

Hardwood trees comprise the largest part of the original forest cover in the upper elevations of the watershed and are predominately oaks and hickory. Major varieties include white oak (Quercus alba), black oak (Quercus velutina), southern red oak (Quercus falcata), mockernut hickory (Carya tomentosa), and pignut hickory (Carya glabra). The American chestnut (Castanea dentate) was also an important constituent prior to the chestnut blight in the 1930’s (Shelford 1963:38-39).

Other important trees to be found in the watershed include black gum (Nyssa sylvatica), yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipfera), sourwood (Oxydendrum arboretum), dogwood (Cornus florida), persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), and black walnut (Juglans nigra). Several large, overmature pines, some over 100-200 years in age, also grow in the battlefield. Throughout the watershed, there is a wide variety of smaller shrubs, grasses, and plants. Included among these are several with food or medicinal value such as sedge (Carex sp.), huckleberry (Gaylussacia baccata), pokeberry (Phytolacca americana), sumac (Rhus capollina), raspberry (Rubus arundelanus), blackberry (Rubus argutus), dewberry (Rubus flagellaris), sassafras (Sassafras albidum), blueberry (Vaccinium vaccillans), summer grape (Vitis aestivalis), and wild grape (Vitis riparia) (Brewer 1987).

FAUNA

From the earliest times, the most important game animal found in the watershed was the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). The availability of deer for the deerskin trade was the most important inducement leading John McDonald to settle on South Chickamauga Creek around 1770 (Malone 1956:54-55). Other food animals present included the opossum (Didelphis marsupialus), gray squirrel (Sciurus niger), raccoon (Procyon lotor), cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus), ground squirrel (Spermophilus tridecemlineatus), ground hog (Mormota monax), and the black bear (Ursus americana). Larger carnivores present in the watershed include the gray fox (Urocyon chinereoargenatus), red fox (Vulpes fulva), and the bobcat (Lynx rufus). In addition to a number of smaller rodents and carnivores, there were also the beaver (Castor canedensis), muskrat (Ondatra zibetheca), and skunk (Mephitis mephitis) (Kellog 1939:245-303). The watershed also provides a suitable environment for large numbers of birds, including songbirds, as well as hawks, owls, and vultures. The most common game bird was the wild turkey (Meleagris gallapavo); quail (Colinus virginianus) were also in considerable abundance. Aquatic species, present on a seasonal basis, include the Great Blue Heron, the green heron (Butorides virescens), the coot (Fulica americana), and several types of ducks such as mallard (Anas platyrhyncos), green-winged teal (Nettion carolinense), blue-winged teal (Querquedula discors), and ring-necked duck (Nyroca collaris). The waters of South Chickamauga Creek and its larger tributaries contain several species of fish, turtles, and frogs. Except for the extinct passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius), each of the above-named varieties or species, while greatly depleted by the processes of twentieth century urbanization and industrialization, still occur in the watershed, or can be recalled by persons still living (Brewer 1987).

CHAPTER 3 CULTURAL BACKGROUND

PRE-CONTACT HISTORY

The following pre-contact history sections are predominately excerpted from Hellmann’s (2003) Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park Archeological Overview and Assessment, as it correlates with the broader pre-contact history of northwest Georgia. Additional information that post-dates this description is included as cited within the text.

PRE-CLOVIS PERIOD

Exactly when humans first arrived in the New World is a debated question in American archeology today. Until recently, the most commonly accepted theory was that the first peoples migrated to the New World from Asia, crossing the Bearing Strait land bridge during the last Ice Age approximately 12,000 years ago and quickly spreading throughout North and South America.

Large lanceolate spear points referred to as Clovis points were the most readily identified stone tool types associated with these earliest well documented Americans. However, relatively recent studies (Bennett et al. 2021; Goodyear and Sain 2018) have provided proof of pre-Clovis cultures in North America dating back to as early as 50,000 BP.

Dr. Albert C. Goodyear, working for the South Carolina Institute of Archeology and Anthropology (SCIAA) a division of the University of South Carolina (USC), first discovered evidence of pre-Clovis occupation in 1998 at the Topper Site, underneath a well-documented Clovis occupation, on the Savannah River in Allendale County, South Carolina and has been conducting research there ever since (Goodyear and Sain 2018). Results of Goodyear’s research indicate that the assemblage of artifacts recovered from the site, and radiocarbon dated, show that pre-Clovis human use of material from this natural chert quarry for the construction of tools range from 25,000 to more than 50,000 BP.

Another recently published study (Bennett et al. 2021) has documented evidence of human occupation in North America dated to approximately 23,000 years ago and indicates occupation of the area for another 2,000 years. These dates were identified through the discovery of a series of prehistoric footprints at White Sands National Park in New Mexico. The footprints were found in dried lakebeds across the park and their ages were ascertained by utilizing radiocarbon dating of aquatic plant seeds left from the prehistoric lake in the same stratigraphic layer as the footprints.

The full implications of these studies and others have not yet been fully examined and will certainly have a major effect on the interpretation of the Paleoindian period.

PALEOINDIAN PERIOD

In the Southeast and Georgia, the Paleoindian period is typically divided into three broad temporal categories, Early, Middle, and Late or Transitional, based, in part, on the occurrence of specific projectile point types. The Early Paleoindian period is typically characterized by relatively large lanceolates, which are similar to the classic Southwestern Clovis forms or variants of that, while the Middle Paleoindian period is associated with unfluted lanceolates and Simpson or Suwannee types. The Late Paleoindian period in Georgia is defined, in part, by the occurrence of Dalton and other related points (Anderson et al. 1990). Traditional characterizations of Paleoindians have portrayed them as nomadic hunters of Pleistocene megafauna, such as mammoth, mastodon, and bison. However, these descriptions were based on data from archaeological sites in the western United States. Reevaluations based on data from the Southeast (Clausen et al. 1979; Sassaman et

al. 1990) and the Northeast (Cushman 1982) suggest that these groups relied on a broader diet that included small mammals and plants. These interpretations further suggest that settlement patterns were probably less mobile or nomadic than traditionally thought (Anderson et al. 1990; O’Steen 1996).

Paleoindian components are uncommon in Georgia’s archaeological record, comprising

0.52 percent of recorded sites in the Georgia Archaeological Site File (GASF) as of 2009, and only 3 sites within the Central Upland physiographic district (Williams et al. 2010:79). Previous work in the Allatoona Basin region has revealed Paleoindian period sites to be very rare (Caldwell 1958:109; Ledbetter et al. 1987:169). In spite of these very limited data, it is evident that artifacts from the time were fashioned from high-quality chert, the sources of which were not easily accessible or locally available, whereas artifacts from the later Archaic period in Georgia seem to have been fashioned primarily from local quartz sources.

The end of the Paleoindian period coincides with the Pleistocene/Holocene transition and, in most areas of the Southeast is given an arbitrary terminal date of 8000 BC; the end of this period is associated with the end of the Wisconsin Ice Age and a shift to modern environmental conditions. New settlement patterns and subsistence strategies were established as populations grew and regional technologies changed to meet the needs of environmental niches. These trends are defining features of the subsequent Archaic period.

ARCHAIC PERIOD

The transition from the Paleoindian to the Archaic period is gradual and related to the evolution of modern climatic conditions, similar to those the first European explorers and settlers encountered.

In Georgia, the transition has been somewhat arbitrarily designated as 8000 BC. Changes in technology, population demography and diversity in social organization characterize this era. The growth of subregional traditions is indicated by the appearance of a range of notched and/or stemmed hafted biface types across the Southeast (Sassaman et al. 1990). The Archaic period is generally divided into Early, Middle, and Late.

During the Early Archaic (ca. 8000-6000 BC), a dramatic increase in population, based on the identification of a larger number of archaeological sites dating to the period, resulted in decreased group mobility and exploitation of a wider range of food resources. The larger variety of Early Archaic tools suggests that more specialized tasks were undertaken as sites were occupied for longer periods. Various models of Early Archaic settlement have been proposed. According to Anderson and Hanson (1988), Early Archaic groups inhabited the Piedmont during the summer and fall and warmer regions of their territory during the winter and spring. Based on data from the Wallace Reservoir, O’Steen (1996) hypothesized that Early Archaic populations exhibited a greater degree of sedentism than previously thought and came to acquire non-local lithic materials through extensive band/river-based exchange. Claggett and Cable’s Haw River model, based on excavations at stratified Piedmont sites in North Carolina, envisions highly mobile groups that continuously resettled across the landscape as they exhausted local resources (Anderson et al.

1996:67). Early Archaic components are recognized at archaeological sites by the presence of a series of bifaces from the side and corner notched traditions.

The beginning of the Middle Archaic (6000-3000 BC) in Georgia is correlated with the onset of a period of climatic change known as the Middle Holocene Hypsithermal, a period of warmer and drier climatic conditions. During the Middle Archaic, human populations increased in the Piedmont. Sites were still occupied on a temporary basis by mobile bands that were hunting, collecting, and foraging, using an exploitive strategy referred to as “adaptive flexibility” by Blanton and Sassaman (1989). Mobility decreased and settlement and subsistence strategies became more diversified. Artifacts typical of the Middle Archaic in the Piedmont include Stanly, Morrow Mountain, and Brier Creek/Middle Archaic Late Archaic (MALA) projectile point types (Elliott and Sassaman 1995). Middle Archaic projectile points are distinguished from their predecessors by the appearance of stemmed hafted bifaces, which are thought to be an outgrowth of technological traditions of the Carolina Piedmont (Coe 1964:21; Elliott and Sassaman 1995:26).

During the Late Archaic period (ca. 3000-1000 BC) many important cultural developments took place, including the introduction of stone and pottery vessels for use in food preparation, the first instances of plant cultivation, mound building, and the establishment of long-distance trade networks. Some of the earliest pottery recovered from the Southeast was fiber-tempered pottery found in the Georgia and South Carolina coastal plain (Sassaman 1993). Settlement data suggests that Late Archaic peoples adopted an increasingly sedentary lifestyle focused on large base camps that were occupied throughout the year located in riverine floodplains and along the coast, near highly productive estuaries (Bense 1994). Diagnostic artifacts of the Late Archaic include fiber-tempered pottery and stemmed Savannah River projectile points. Cultural differences among Coastal Plain, Piedmont and Ridge and Valley groups continued. For example, soapstone cooking vessels continued to be used by Piedmont and Ridge and Valley groups, who were slower to develop and utilize fiber-tempered pottery (Sassaman et al. 1990; Stanyard 2003).

WOODLAND PERIOD

It is the widespread adoption of ceramic technology that marks the beginning of the Woodland period in the region, although the date of demarcation is somewhat arbitrary. Archaeologists divide the Woodland period into Early, Middle, and Late. Increased social complexity is reflected in widespread Woodland characteristics, such as an increase in long distance trade, changes in ceramic technology, the development of sedentary village life, and in the cultivation of domestic plants.

Archeological data from sites in the Piedmont suggest that the Early Woodland period (ca.

1000-300 BC) was a time of increasing sedentism (Ledbetter et al. 1987). Large Early Woodland permanent villages seem to be confined to the floodplains of large rivers in the upper Piedmont and appear to be absent from the lower Piedmont. Mass storage pits at Woodland habitation sites indicate that nuts were an important food source (Caldwell 1958). Uplands were used for seasonal foraging and hunting during this period. In the Georgia Piedmont, the Early Woodland period is marked by an improved ceramic technology: coil-made, sand tempered pottery. Pottery types characteristic of the Early Woodland period in north and central Georgia include Dunlap Fabric Impressed (Kellogg phase), and Mossy Oak Cord Marked. Cartersville Check Stamped pottery was produced somewhat later in the Early Woodland period.

Middle to Late Woodland mound sites in Georgia (e.g., Anneewakee, Cold Springs, Summerour) were occupied by people with more complex and less mobile social organizations made possible by improvements in horticulture and ceramic technology. At Cold Springs (9GE10), the larger of two mounds were excavated in the late 1970s (Fish and Jefferies 1978). Several building stages were delineated with associated structures. Possible pit houses were identified in the village area. Swift Creek pottery was the primary type associated with the site. In the Piedmont, the most common Middle Woodland (ca. 300 BC–AD 500) ceramic types include undecorated, simple stamped, and check stamped ceramics. Swift Creek ceramics, typically a minority ware, are characterized by intricate complicated stamped surface designs (Williams and Elliott 1998).

Projectile points typical of the Middle Woodland period in Georgia include Yadkin, Bakers Creek, and Copena (Whatley 2002).

The onset of the Late Woodland period in northern Georgia is traditionally marked by late Swift Creek and Napier Complicated Stamped types. A Late Woodland settlement in Henry County (9HY39) contained Swift Creek and Napier earth ovens, warm-weather structures, and storage pits, and yielded corn and squash remains (Webb et al. 1994). The Woodstock ceramic tradition is likely a marker of later transitional Late Woodland-Early Mississippi period manifestations. Diagnostic lithics of the Late Woodland period are Hamilton points and small, triangular hafted bifaces. The common occurrence of smaller triangular points in the Late Woodland period is likely attributable to the introduction of the bow and arrow during this period (Bense 1994).

MISSISSIPPIAN PERIOD

Approximately 1,100 years ago, Native American life in the Southeast changed dramatically.

Archaeologists have identified the emergence of a new way of life known as Mississippian culture around AD 1000 in multiple locations across the Southeast. Mississippian culture is typically recognized in the archaeological record through the presence of a series of traits, including but not limited to, intensive maize cultivation, settlement in the floodplains of major rivers, shell-tempered pottery, rectangular wall-trench structures, pyramidal earthen mounds, and the long-distance circulation of well-crafted prestige objects. The principal trait that defines Mississippian culture beyond all those previously listed is the emergence of ranked societies that were politically and economically organized into chiefdoms of varying size and complexity.

According to Fried (1967:109), rank societies are those in which positions of elevated status are limited to such an extent that not everyone has access. In ranked societies, chiefly positions of elevated status are typically inherited within a single group of elites and are recognized archaeologically by the presence of platform mounds, upon which chiefly elites resided, conducted religious rituals, and in some cases were buried. Mississippi period chiefdoms have traditionally been characterized by the presence of flat-topped mounds, large permanently occupied villages, maize agriculture, and distinctive ceramic types. Chiefdom-level societies expanded across the southeastern U.S. during this period. The development of a complicated network of villages and mound centers was an important factor behind the expansion of Mississippian chiefdoms.

In northern Georgia, the Mississippi period is generally divided into Early, Middle, and Late. The following discussion of archaeologically defined Mississippian cultures in Georgia relies heavily on information from better researched areas to the north and east, such as the Etowah River and Oconee River drainage basins.

In north-central Georgia, the Early Mississippi period is represented by the Etowah culture, which is named for the mound complex located near Cartersville, Georgia. Etowah phase ceramics appear to emerge from the preceding Woodstock phase ceramic tradition. Several phases of Etowah culture have been proposed based on the presence of various ceramic design types (Hally and Rudolph 1986; King 1997). The Etowah phase in the Etowah Valley is typified by Etowah Complicated Stamped and Etowah Plain ceramics, with minor occurrences of check stamped, burnished, and red filmed ceramics (Williams and Shapiro 1990). Platform mounds were constructed at political centers like Etowah by at least AD 1150. At this time, simple chiefdoms were established on nearly every large river in Georgia. People were settled in relatively compact villages and rural farmsteads that were occupied year-round. The subsistence base was centered on maize agriculture and supplemented with hunting, trapping, fishing, and foraging.

In parts of middle Georgia, the Early Mississippi period is represented by the Vining culture. Although the Mississippian groups in Georgia associated with mound building at Etowah and the Macon Plateau typically preferred settlement in broad, fertile floodplains,…