Lithic Scatter Management Strategy 1988 and OR PMOA1984.pdf

United States Department of Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Northwest Region lj.J~j .:f

Management Strategy for Treatment of Lithic Scatter S,'ites

U", •

Studies in Cultural R'esource Management No. 7

James D. Keyser, Thomas L. Burge, and Dorothy M. Fleming, Editors

Management Strategy For The Treatment of

Lithic Scatter Sites

Editors: James D. Keyser, Thomas L. Burge

Dorothy M. Fleming

USDA Forest Service

Pacific Northwest Region

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

2.0 BACKGROUND

3.0 TARGET OBJECTIVES

4.0 SITE DEFINrnON

5.0 RESEARCH CONCERNS ........................................................................... '

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Research Topics and Questions

5.2.1 The Relationship Of Prehistoric Human Groups To Their

Environment

5.2.2 Variability in Hunter - Gatherer lifeways ................................................7 .

5.2.3 Technical Studies

5.2.4 Crosscutting Studies

5.2.4.1 Chronology

5.2.4.2 Artifact Studies

5.2.4.3 Formation Processes

5.2.4.4 Site Function

5.2.4.5 Settlement Studies

6.0 METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

6.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 1 0

6.2 Archaeological Methods ................................................................................... 1 0

6.2.1 Overview ....................................................................... ~ ............ 1 0

6.2.2 Inventory .................................................................................... 1 0

6.2.3 Recordation

6.2.4 Surface Collection

6.2.5 Test Excavation

6.2.6 Data Recovery Plan

6.2.7 Excavation

6.3 Analysis

6.4 Reporting

6.5 Curation

6.6 Interpretation

6.7 Mapping

6.8' Data Recording

6.9 Surface Collection

6.10 Sampling

7.0 MANAGEMENT OPTIONS

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Avoidance

7.3 Data Recovery

7.4 Allow For Acceptable Levels of Impact

7.5 Treatment Of Lithic Scatters Through Project Design

7.5.1 Intact Surface Site

7.5.2 Disturbed Surface Site

7.5.3 Intact Buried Site

7.5.4 Disturbed Buried Site

Table of Contents (continued)

PAGE

8.0 IMPLEMENTATION

8.1 Professional Staff

8.2 Prerequisite Knowledge Levels and Documentation

8.2.1 Overview

8.2.2 Site Records

8.2.3 Inventory Plan

8.3 Treatments Appropriate For Lithic Scatter Sites

8.3.1 Inventory

8.3.2 Probing

8.3.3 Data Collection

8.3.3.1 Surface Collection

8.3.3.2 Site Testing

8.3.3.3 Shovel Testing

8.3.3.4 Test Excavation

8.3.3.5 Data Recovery Excavation

8.3.4 Data Recovery Plans

8.3.5 Monitoring and Documentation

8.3.5.1 Summary Reports

8.3.5.2 Regional Office Review

8.3.5.3 Integration as Regional POlicy

8.3.6 Consultation .................................................................. ,

9.0 MONITORING

9.1 Project Monitoring

9.2 Forest Program MonitOring

9.3 Regional Program Monitoring

10.0 GLOSSARY

11.0 REFERENCES CITED

12.0 APPENDIX 1: Research Topics Outline

13.0 APPENDIX 2: Office of Personnel Management Qualification Stds

14.0 APPENDIX 3: Title 36, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 66

15.0 APPENDIX 4: Lithic Scatter PMOA Eligibility Determination Form

16.0 APPENDIX 5: Lithic Scatter PMOA

17.0 APPENDIX 6: Forest Service Site Form

18.0 APPENDIX 7: Draft Update, Forest Service Manual, Chapter 2360, Cultural

Resource Management

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The area encompassing central and eastern Oregon has long been recognized as a region rich in prehis toric archaeological resources. Consisting of the southern periphery of the Columbia Plateau and the northern portion of the Great Basin, this vast area provided a livelihood for a variety of riverine, lacustrine, and desert-oriented prehistoric cultures over the last 12,000 years. Seven National Forests of the Pacific Northwest Region lie within eastern and central Oregon: the Deschutes, Fremont, Malheur, Ochoco, Umatilla, Wallowa-Whitman, and Winema (Figure 1). Each of these Forests contains a multi tude of cultural resource sites that are integrated into Forest multiple resource management programs.

Cultural resources are one of a variety of resource values that are considered in the environmental im pact process (c.t, National Environmental Policy Act).

As a part of this process, beginning in the early 1970's, the USDA Forest Service initiated a coor dinated program of inventory for cultural resources.

As the program has grown, records have accumu lated on thousands of prehistoric and historical sites.

The management alternative used for nearly all of these sites has been "avoidance," with in-place preservation. However, as the number of recorded sites has grown, more situations are occurring where there is conflict between cultural resource values and other resource values.

Within the seven central and eastern Oregon Forests, the most common archaeological sites are lithic scat ters; Le., open-air concentrations composed primarily of chipped stone debris and tools, with occasional bone tools, bone debris, groundstone items, and other artifacts. The site class has been purposefully broadly defined in the present document in order to accommodate the diversity of open occupation sites found in the affected Forests. A series of common site types are excluded including rockshelters, vil lages, vision quest sites, and human burials. A deter mination of whether other sites (e.g., a lithic con centration with a possible house pit depression) should be included under the aegis of this manage ment strategy will be made in consultation with the Oregon State HistoriC Preservation Office (SHPO).

lithic scatter sites are numerous and often occur in areas where ground-disturbing activities are planned.

The environmental factors which made a location desirable in the past are frequently the same factors which make a location desirable today (e.g., drainage, view, access to water, etc). As avoidance of these sites is not always practical, it can be more cost-effective to mitigate potential adverse impacts through data recovery.

Given the number and density of lithic scatters and the increaSing incidence of resource conflict, a need to streamline the review and compliance process was identified by Pacific Northwest Region cultural resource management (CRM) speCialists. Similarly, a need to structure the focus of the potential research associated with lithic scatters was recognized. To these ends, the Forest Service has entered into a Programmatic Memorandum of Agreement (PMOA) with the Oregon State Historic Preservation Office and the AdviSOry Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP). The PMOA is designed to facilitate the protection, preservation, and management of lithic scatter sites. As part of this streamlined process, the Forest Service has prepared the current management strategy. It is to be used as guidance in managing lithic scatter sites on the affected Forests.

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2.0 BACKGROUND 3.0 TARGET OBJECTIVES

Uttle is known of the archaeology of central and east ern Oregon as it is represented by lithic scatter sites.

Only recently has this site class been aggressively in vestigated (cJ. Fagan 1974, Scott 1982, Pettigrew 1983. Minor and Toepe11983, Lyman 1983, Pet tigrew and Spear 1984, 1986). This research has shown that the information contained within such sites, clearly, has the potential to contribute to our un derstanding of the prehistory of this region.

In addressing the need to identify and focus the re search potential of lithic scatters, an attempt has been made to create an outline which accommodates the varying levels of data which are present at such sites (Appendix 1). In its Simplest form, the system has three tiers: Ultimate goals, or complex issues which help get at basic anthropological concerns are at the top (e.g., Human-Environment Relationships, Hunter-Gatherer Adaptations, and Technical Studies);

a series of "mid-range connecting topiCS" make up the middle tier (e.g., studies of settlement patterning, culture change, and cultural ecology); and the lower tier or foundation consists of traditional archaeologi cal techniques (e.g., chronology-building, raw material sourcing, and artifact analyses).

The research topics outlined in Appendix 1 are con ceived of as being rather fluid, with the lower-tiered topicS frequently cross-cutting one another. Further, these research topics will likely change and evolve as we work with lithic scatters. New topics/questions will be added to the list as they are realized. The use of the overall management strategy for lithic scatters for any given project, then, may allow an investigator to address a variety of research questions with the same data base.

The following objectives are central to implementation of the Uthic Scatter PMOA:

1. To ensure that these sites are given treatment commensurate with their archaeological value and the nature and extent of project impacts.

2. To facilitate the treatment (including avoidance and data recovery) of lithic scatter sites that are in danger of impact from land management activities (e.g.• timber harvest. road construction, etc.).

3. To ensure that appropriate information concerning the inventory. evaluation, and treatment of these sites is communicated to the SHPO where it will be avail able to the archaeological profession.

4. To ensure that data recovery (when appropriate) is directed toward current archaeologjcal issues, and results in accumulation of information that advances the knowledge of archaeology in this area of Oregon.

5. To formalize research questions to which data from these sites might be relevant.

4.0 SITE DEFINITION

Lithic scatter sites are open-air concentrations of prehistoric or protohistoric cultural debris that indicate the location of past human behavior. Cultural material at these sites is predominantly chipped stone waste flakes and tools, though some sites in clude relatively limited quantities of bone scrap, bone tools, groundstone tools, and occasional features such as hearths and housepits. Lithic scatters can be either surface or buried manifestations. Often in dividual sites show varying densities of cultural material both vertically and horizontally. Vertical den sity differences in a buried site may indicate variation in the intensity of occupation atof the site through time. Horizontal density patterns may indicate ac tivity loci where various tasks were centered, or they may identify multiple occupations on a surface that has remained relatively stable through time. Sites which include complex structural features (e.g., two or more housepits) are not considered lithic scatters for the purpose of this document. Such sites present data recovery opportunities that would require addi tional consideration and SHPO consultation.

An "isolate" is defined as an artifact which has no sur face or subsurface cultural associations. Isolates occur most commonly as Single flakes or single chipped stone tools; in some instances multiple specimens occurring in the same area will constitute an isolated find because they have no cultural as sociations and therefore yield very limited informa tion. Since the identification of an isolate is based on the absence of cultural associations, no number of specimens can automatically be used as a definition.

For the purposes of this document an arbitrary figure of 10 specimens (flakes or tools) has been adopted to define a site. A find of fewer than 10 artifacts will be considered an isolate unless justification can be given for defining it as a site. Such justification must be based on a specific research question(s) to which data embodied by the group of flakes or tools would be relevant. Identification of an isolate requires care ful surface examination and often some manner of subsurface sampling using auger or shovel probes, small-scale test excavations, or other methods of ex posing subsurface deposits.

For the purposes of this PMOA four principal types of lithic scatters are defined:

Intact Surface Site

An intact surface lithic scatter is one ih which the physical properties that make up the site are undis turbed by modern human activities.

Disturbed Surface Site

A disturbed surface lithic scatter is one in which the integrity of the site has been altered by historic human activities (e.g., previous logging, vandalism).

Intact Buried Site

An intact buried lithic scatter is one in which the physical properties that make up the site lie in an un disturbed state at least 30 cm below the soil surface.

Disturbed Buried Site

A disturbed buried lithic scatter is one in which the cultural material lying at least 10 cm below the soil surface has been altered by historic human activities.

5.0 RESEARCH CONCERNS

5.1 Introduction

Our present knowledge about the prehistory of the seven National Forests of eastern and central Oregon is limited by a paucity of systematic ar chaeological investigations. Although thousands of sites have been identified, few have been extensively studied. This is due to the fact that the most frequent ly adopted management strategy has been to avoid impacting sites, thus leaving them preserved in place.

Because newly developing archaeological technology enables the recovery of much more data today than even in the recent past, and future technology is like ly to even further improve our ability to recover data and construct models of past cultures, avoidance/in place preservation will remain the most desirable op tion for treating most of these lithic scatters.

However, the science of archaeology advances very slowly unless excavations are conducted to test hypotheses and models that are proposed to account for culture change, continuity, or process. The Forest Service recognizes that scientific research is a valid use of archaeological sites and supports research ef forts by qualified individuals and institutions. When an anticipated impact cannot be avoided by project modification, data recovery is conducted. The follow ing section outlines research questions to which data from lithic scatter sites are relevant (see Appendix 1), outlines the data that will be the focus of recovery ef forts, and describes the methodologies used to guide the resulting data recovery projects.

5.2 Research Topics and Questions

In order to manage the sites subsumed by the Lithic Scatter PMOA we must be able to evaluate their infor mation potential and fit them into a larger interpretive and scientific framework. This necessitates explicit problem orientation and careful articulation of relevant research questions in a regional research design. During an initial meeting in January of 1984, archaeologists from Federal and State agencies, academic institutions, and consulting firms developed an outline of relevant research topics (Appendix 1).

The resulting document, as noted, begins with three "over-arching" research issues that have broad anthropological relevance. It progresses through mid level research questions (the usual focus of data recovery projects) to specific data recovery opera tions to be carried out on individual sites. In this out line, then, specific small-scale concerns are nested within broader mid-level research questions which ul timately are synthesized into broad anthropological is sues.

While it is worth noting that the research topics iden tified in Appendix 1 far from exhaust the potential list of topics, they should prove more than adequate in helping to focus lithic scatter research for the foresee able future. As new research topics are identified they can and will be added to this list.

The three broadest or "over-arching" research topics identified in Appendix 1 are of interest not only to the professional archaeological community, but to the general public as well. They are listed below and dis cussed in detail in the following subsections. These three topics are:

Topic 1 The Relationship of PrehistOriC Human groups to their Environment Topic 2 Variability in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways Topic 3 Technical Studies

5.2.1 The Relationship of Prehistoric Human

Groups to Their Environment?

The archaeological record reveals clues to past en vironments coupled with information concerning how humans adapted to both static and dynamic environ mental phenomena. The seven Forests affected by the lithic scatter PMOA embrace a broad diversity of environments characterized by internal drainage basins and playa lakes, a number of major drainages tributary to the Columbia and Klamath Rivers, and numerous intermediate mountain ranges including the east flank of the Cascades. Within this region some environmental phenomena have been relatively stable through the Holocene Epoch, others have been episodic, and still others have undergone dramatic change. It is difficult to generalize concern ing paleo-environments across this seven-Forest region, but the topographic diversity evident today provides an excellent opportunity to evaluate the sig nificance of regional trends, as well as to produce an understanding of the complexity of the relationships between humans and their environment. For ex ample, the archaeological record in this region con tains data which can explicate both long-term and temporary climatic fluctuations and the effects of these on human adaptations. The record also con tains data pertinent to understanding the consequen ces (often unanticipated) of human behavior on the environment. Such consequences are not new in human history--they can be traced back thousands of years in some areas. Answers to these and other mid-level research questions may even contribute to informed decision-making concerning ways in which we can interact most effectively with our environment today. Two sample research questions that could be studied using data from these sites are (see outline, Appendix 1, for others):

Question 1 - What have been the patterns of post Pleistocene changes in the natural and cultural en vironment?

The archaeological record contains direct evidence both for the nature of past environments and the means by which people adapted to them. In some Forests, bedrock geology and geomorphology have remained relatively stable throughout the Holocene, while on others dramatic volcanic events have changed topography, river courses, and the distribu tion of floral, faunal, and mineral resources. Other geologic processes are less catastrophic. Alh:lvial, colluvial, and aeolian processes have gradually al tered landscapes through time. The rate at which these processes impact the land is often affected by various climatic factors.

Broad Holocene Climatic classification stages have been outlined for western North America (Antevs 1955; Hansen 1947). The Anathermal (12,000 7,000 B.P.) was a period of cooler, wetter climate im mediately following the retreat of the late Pleistocene glaciers. Key geomorphic features characterizing the Anathermal were large shallow pluvial lakes which covered many of the large basins in southeastern Oregon. Most of these lakes are now extinct, but Klamath, Abert, and Harney/Malheur lakes are rem nants of these ancient features.

The Anathermal was followed by the Altlthermal (7,000-4,000 B.P.) during which conditions became drier and warmer. Lake levels receded and water be came a scarce resource. Dune formations charac terize this period in some parts of eastern Oregon.

The Medithermal (4,000 B.P. to present) follows the Altithermal and is thought to be a period of environ mental conditions similar to those of the present day.

During this time climate gradually ameliorated and floral and faunal resources gradually reached their present distributions.

It shou Id be noted however that this tripartite scheme of environmental change is most useful as a broad characterization. In the decades since its first ap pearance, additional data have suggested the presence of substantial regional, cyclical variations.

How the large-scale changes identified by Antevs dif ferentially affected local environments is an important focus of specific studies. Some relevant topics in clude how climatic changes affected the distribution and composition of plant and animal communities.

Specific questions might include the nature and timing of change in the altitudinal zonation of plant communities, cause and effect of megafaunal extinc tions during both the Pleistocene (e.g., mammoth, camel, horse) and the extirpation of some species during the protohistoric period (e.g., bison, wolf, grizz ly bear). Additionally, species distribution of popula tions of large ungulates (e.g. mule deer, pronghorn, elk, and mountain sheep) were undoubtedly affected by natural and cultural factors as were populations of the smaller mammals (Grayson 1982). Lake desicca tion during the Anathermal and Altithermal undoubted ly eliminated habitat for a wide variety of fish and bird species which were of economic importance to prehis toric groups. The effect of this drying has not been well studied in the northem Great Basin and surround ing areas.

Our current portrayal of human adaptation through time is just as simplistic as our understanding of en vironmental change. The archaeological literature traces the evolution of culture from the Big Game Hunting Tradition, through the Archaic, the Numic Ex pansion, and finally during the Historic period to the emergence of Euro-American culture. This model relies heavily on lowland cave or deeply stratified sites (see Pettigrew 1979,1983,1985), however, and it seems likely that investigations of upland ar chaeological sites located on Forest lands may give a more representative picture of human adaptation.

For instance, we may expect to see clear differences in archaeological site distributions for sites dating from the Anathermal and the Altithermal, since critical subsistence resources would be located at different elevations.

Thus, from these and other questions, it is obvious that study of archaeological sites on the Forested uplands of east-central Oregon is critical to under standing regional prehistory in the context of chang ing environments. To facilitate the collection of data relevant to these issues, specialized analyses will be employed (where appropriate) to recover paleo-en vironmental data (palynology, faunal analysis, soil and geomorphological studies, etc.) that can be used to reconstruct past environments. The result will be a more accurate picture of human adaptation in rela tion to the environment. Additionally, it can be argued that such studies can help us to clarify the paths of environmental change in the future; such develop· ment would have obvious consequences for land use planning, among other things.

Question 2 - How have humans manipulated the natural environment?

The contemporary natural environment of this region reflects both long-term human use, and drastic short term environmental changes caused by historic agriculture, grazing, fire prevention, logging and other activities. In Historic times some areas of the region have experienced marked fluctuations of water tables, elimination of native plant and animal species, or drastic increases in other species (e.g., juniper and big sagebrush). Prehistoric residents of the area also had an impact on the environment through their use of critical resources (food, animals and plants, fuelwood, water). For instance, some researchers (Martin and Wright 1967) believe that humans played a pivotal role in the extinction of late Pleistocence fauna. Other research has shown that Indians pur posefully used fire to control plant growth and in fluence animal distribution. Additionally, following Euro-American contact Indians gained access to new technology that gave them even greater power to im pact their environment.

Given this background, it is apparent that specific questions such as "How did Indians and early White settlers cause environmental changes?" and "How did such changes affect Indians' use of the area?"

can be addressed. The implications of these ques tions relate directly to many of the environmental is sues faced by us today.

5.2:2 Variability In Hunter-Gatherer Llfeways

Archaeology enables investigation of the range of ways hunter-gatherers organize themselves to cope with the demands of their natural environment, and of the ways they interacted with other social groups.

These systems were different from our own; they demanded intimate knowledge of the landscape, the distribution of plants, animals, and raw materials, and the cultural practices and movements of other human groups. Knowledge of this variability in human cul tural systems lends perspective to today's world and enhances our appreciation of human achievements and human ingenuity.

This research topic provides the opportunity to inves tigate expectations derived from ethnographic models of hunter-gatherer culture. Because Great Basin groups shared certain aspects of culture, the diversity in their adaptive strategies is just now receiving ade quate consideration by archaeologists (Thomas

1973, Bettinger and Baumhoff 1982, Fowler 1982, and Pettigrew 1985). Similarly, models of Columbia Plateau groups are probably over-simplified. Defini tion of structurally different ecological adaptations re quires analysis of the full range of site types located across the physical boundaries of both public and private land. We will begin to approach this long term goal by addreSSing research questions like the following through data recovered from sites on Nation al Forest System lands.

Question 1 - To what extent did environmental variation, through time and across space, condition the adaptations of hunter-gatherers in east-central Oregon? To what extent do existing hunter-gatherer models fit the archaeological data? What is the range of adaptive strategies employed by different groups in similar environments or similar groups in dif ferent environments? How did changing environmen tal conditions produce different responses by various social groups?

Question 2 - How did patterns of mobility and seden tism, as well as travel and trade affect the structure of human populations? How did the size of human groups change through time and how did these groups distribute themselves over the area under study? Is there evidence of population decline or movements into or out of the area?

Question 3 - How do archaeological data reflect, elucidate, or differ from our knowledge of hunter gatherers derived from the ethnographic record? Can material cultural evidence be directly correlated with prehistoric aboriginal technology? Has any eth nographically known social group left a distinguish able "Signature" in the archaeological record?

Question 4 - What is the effect of changing tech nological efficiency on the structure of social sys tems? Did patterns of human exploitation alter the productivity and distribution of critical subsistence resources, thereby forcing changes in land use and resource scheduling?

Major technological innovations of regional interest in clude the adoption of the bow and arrow, aboriginal vegetative manipulation through the use of fire, the in troduction of the horse, and various fishing and food storage technologies.

5.2.3 Technical Studies

The archaeological record is formed and shaped by natural as well as cultural processes. While natural processes have long been recognized as significant factors to consider in archaeological reconstruction and interpretation, a detailed literature describing the mechanics and effects of these processes has been slow to develop (c.f. Schiffer 1972; 1983). This pat~ tern is even more applicable to eastern Oregon, espe cially as it relates to the formation and transformation of the abundant lithic scatter sites in the region.

Thus, until topical studies investigating formation processes are undertaken, our understanding of lithic scatter sites will necessarily be limited and very general. Hence, one research approach to prehis toric lithic scatters should include topical studies regarding how such sites are formed and trans formed, how they are defined and described by ar chaeologists, and how they can be appropriately managed. Four major research questions are par ticularlyappropriate.

Question 1 - What will be included in the definition of "lithic scatter"?

The definition, interpretation, and management of lithic scatter sites in eastern and central Oregon has been extremely variable, due largely to a lack of con sensus as to what lithic scatters are, how they should be defined, what SCientific value they hold, and ul timately, how they should be managed and protected by state and federal land managing agencies (Appen dix 1; Topic 3: A-D). Because these issues remain unresolved, there has been a tendency for some ar chaeologists to ignore these apparently simple sites in favor of more complex, stratified cave and open-air sites. Additionally, a variety of cultural and natural phenomena often complicate the issue (see Ques tions 2 and 3 below). Topical studies which attempt to accurately depict the nature, range in variation, and scientific value of lithic scatter sites will greatly enhance archaeological knowledge and resource management abilities.

Question 2 - What natural and cultural processes contribute to the formation of lithic scatter sites?

Although there has been a tendency among ar chaeologists to view prehistoric lithic scatters as a static archaeological phenomenon, a number of natural and cultural processes have formed and trans formed the record, often hindering archaeological reconstruction and interpretation (Appendix 1; Topic 3). These include erosion and depOSition, pedoturba tion, vulcanism and other geomorphic processes.

Such processes often shape the distribution of CUl tural material (either destroying or creating artifact pat terning) and affect the artifacts themselves (e.g., causing breakage and obscuring or creating "use wear"). Natural site formation processes must there fore be fully considered in the interpretation of any lithic scatter site lest they be confused with cultural ones. The cultural processes which contribute to site formation include those of the prehistoric inhabitants themselves (prehistoric discard patterns, activity areas, etc.) and those caused by recent histOric ac tivities near or atop the sites. In particular, recent log ging is a critical site formation process to consider for lithic scatter sites found on the National Forests of eastern and central Oregon.

Question 3 - What are the cumulative effects of modern activities on lithic scatter Sites and how should these be mitigated?

Lithic scatter sites are a diminishing resource in east ern and central Oregon. Nearly 100 years of logging and other ground disturbing activities on eastside Forests has greatly reduced the amount of scientific information that can be gained from some lithic scat ters. Thus, another important area of technical studies is assessing the cumulative effects of these activities on lithic scatters by determining the nature and extent of the disturbances. A further considera tion involves identifying appropriate levels of mitiga tion and management (Appendix 1; Topic 3). Topical studies could focus on assessing the number and condition of lithic scatter sites on the seven eastSide Forests, what mitigation has occurred and what data have been realized from them, and how to mitigate fu ture impacts (see Philipek 1985).

Question 4 - What are the appropriate measures for protecting and stabilizing lithic scatters?

This last area of administrative study is critical to the lasting protection and management of the lithic scat ter resource base (Appendix 1; Topic 3). Currently, little information or direction is available regarding how best to protect and manage lithic scatters. Topi cal studies could include developing criteria for deter mining when and where site protection and stabiliza tion is appropriate, how best to implement protection and stabilization, and the development of specific techniques to accomplish these important tasks.

5.2.4 Crosscutting Studies, "Crosscutting" studies are relevant to any or all of the research topics developed for investigating lithic scat ter sites in eastern Oregon. Often these form the basic data which to serve as a foundation for study ing other research questions. The following subjects are those that crosscut the research issues relevant to lithic scatters; conceptually, they frequently nest within the broader mid-level research questions and anthropological issues identified in Appendix 1.

5.2.4.1 Chronology

Chronological information is the necessary foundation for virtually all archaeological work. Lack of chronological data prevent satisfactory studies of set tlement patterns, paleo-environmental reconstruc tions, and temporal change in any cultural attributes.

More precisely, in order to investigate variability in hunter-gatherer lifeways or relationships of humans to their environment, we must first place archaeologi cal evidence in a temporal context.

For the most part, chronological sequences used to order data in eastern and central Oregon have been borrowed from the adjacent Great Basin and Colum bia Plateau culture areas. What is needed is a regional chronology, developed from data collected from sites in this region. Thus, effort will be directed toward establishing local projectile point chronologies from stratified Sites with independent chronological data, including radiocarbon dates and strata of known geological age.

5.2.4.2 Artifact Studies

The artifact content of lithic scatters is a primary data base that can be exploited by an expanding body of archaeological techniques. Lithic artifacts can provide chronological information derived from tech nological and typological analysis and obsidian hydra tion. Trace element analyses can identify raw material sources and thus enable the study of pat terns of human movement and trade. Experimental studies of artifact manufacture and contextual deposi tion facilitate interpretations of tool use and site forma tion. In sum, the artifacts that compose lithic scatters are key to understanding these sites. Hence, a primary emphasis in the study of these sites will be artifact analyses.

5.2.4.3 Formation Processes

Study of archaeological formation processes underlie all archaeological interpretations. An archaeological site consists of evidence of human occupation which has been altered by a variety of post-depositional processes, including chemical and mechanical chan ges in the soil matrix, erosion and deposition, and dis turbance by plants, animals, and humans. These post-depositional processes must be understood and accounted for if we are to identify prehistoric cultural patterns.

5.2.4.4 Site Function

Site function is frequently assumed from intuitive and often superficial observations made on both artifac tual and environmental data (e.g., the presence of projectile pOints indicates hunting, adjacent edible plants identify plant processing sites, proximity to water demonstrates campsite use). While these in ferences often make some intuitive sense, they may incorporate faulty logic and lead to circular reasoning.

For instance, projectile pOints may be left at a kill site, manufactured at a quarry, or rejuvenated at a campsite. Likewise, it is doubtful that contemporary plant distributions reliably reflect those of prehistoric times.

However, if investigators derive site function from en vironmental variables, and subsequently assign ap propriate functions to the component artifacts, then quite expectedly, the functional interpretations of the artifact assemblage tend to confirm the site function.

Obviously then, determination of site function re quires cautious analysis of tool assemblages, paleo environmental variables, and site location, morphol ogy, and community pattern.

When these analyses are completed, a more assured assessment of site function can be made. These analyses can also be used to form a foundation for broader-scale research questions. Formulation and use of such assessments will be one goal of lithic scatter research.

5.2.4.5 Settlement Studies

Past archaeological research has often focused on a narrow range of site types--primarily stratified rock shelters, pithouse villages, or deeply stratified village site middens. One result of this emphasis is an ex treme bias in our understanding of the past. Settle ment studies of lithic scatter sites on National Forest lands provide an opportunity to expand the range of site types studied and thereby increase our under standing of prehistoric subsistence and settlement systems. Site locational information is a rich data base, greatly enhanced by analysis of aSSOCiated landforms, vegetational zones, and soils. Additional ly, patterns in site distributional data can help identify the cultural, functional, and temporal affiliations of sites. In summary, identification and description of complete subsistence and settlement systems is necessary to characterize prehistoric adaptive strategies. One focus of lithic scatter research in this area will be the description and interpretation of settle ment patterns and subsistence systems.

6.0 METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

6.1 Introduction

The lithic scatters of eastern and central Oregon con stitute a data base that remains essentially untapped for scientific investigation. The research questions that have been formulated provide an outline for developing a research orientation for these sites. For many sites, the relevant data will answer only those low level questions conceming lithic technology, set tlement pattern, chronology, etc., but synthesis of data from several of these sites should provide answers to the broader questions in this matrix, in cluding the very general topics such as interaction be tween humans and the environment, and others.

In the Forest Service land management effort, data beyond the level of inventory information will be col lected from lithic scatter sites when they are threatened by project impact that cannot be mitigated by aVOidance (e.g., project redesign, over-snow log ging). In these instances data collection will be struc tured by a data recovery plan that will address specific research topics which can be addressed with data from the site. The data recovery plan will also relate these site-specific research questions to the broader general topics that will be the subject of syn thesis of data from several sites.

When data recovery is the appropriate treatment for a lithic scatter, a multi-disciplinary approach will be used. Individuals with specific expertise in data recovery and/or analytic techniques will be employed.

Although each lithic scatter site is unique to some de gree, basic archaeological methods and techniques will be used to recover and analyze data. These are described below.

6.2 Archaeological Methods

6.2.1 Overview

An overview is a general description of the culture his tory, cultural ecology, and cultural processes which characterize a particular area. Currently those avail able in Oregon are primarily oriented toward specific National Forests, though a State-wide overview has recently been completed for Oregon (Aikens 1984).

In most cases, overviews will not describe or discuss specific lithic scatters, but these documents will be pe riodically updated with appropriate data from inves tigations of lithic scatter sites.

6.2.2 Inventory

This is the process of locating cultural resource sites.

It is a comprehensive field survey of a specific area deSigned to locate all visible cultural resources. It results in a written report which includes recording, mapping, and photographing of cultural resources. In the Forest Service, inventory is usually project specific in response to a planned undertaking. Inven tory should be done according to guidelines estab lished in an inventory plan (see Keyser 1983).

6.2.3 Recordation

The process of documenting the significant attributes of a cultural resource site and its surrounding environ ment is recordation. Lithic scatters will be recorded on Forest Service site forms (Appendix 6). In some cases all significant information concerning a lithic scatter site can be recorded by completing a Forest Service site form, supplemented by an appropriate surface collection of artifacts. When a professional archaeologist determines that this is the case, the site data will be collected/recorded and the SHPO will be notified that the completed site form and artifact sample constitute appropriate data recovery. An em phasis should be placed on recognizing any chronological associations for these data, if they are present.

6.2.4 Surface Collection.

This is the controlled collection of materials exposed on a site. It should be done for two reasons (1) to collect representative samples of data for determining a site's specific research potential, or (2) as data recovery on sites with no buried cultural material.

Surface collection may be controlled by mapping and point-plotting techniques, depending upon the needs of the appropriate research questions. When under taken as data recovery, surface collection must be in accord with an approved data recovery plan.

For small surface sites whose only value is the dis tribution, technology, and source of the lithics, data recording on the site form, coupled with pOint-plotted surface collection of the materials, can serve as data recovery. The decision to employ this option will be based on the needs of the research topiCS identified as appropriate for a given site. If, in the opinion of the Forest Archaeologist, this can be accomplished during the inventory phase it will be completed at that stage. A report describing the recovery and analysis of the materials will be provided to the SHPO for all such sites.

6.2.5 Test Excavation

Testing of lithic scatters is intended to provide data to determine depth, horizontal extent, and material con tent. Testing is either done as shovel probing, or ex cavation of formal test pits. Shovel probing repre sents informal data gathering to determine the presence of buried materials and to suggest their sub surface distribution. Formal test excavation is used to ascertain quantity and quality of buried materials.

All relevant data from either type of testing effort must be recorded to professional standards. Formal test excavation is often used to collect information on which a data recovery plan is based. It is also used as the initial phase of data recovery in order to ascer tain where larger excavation units should be placed to maximize information gathering. «'

6.2.6 Data Recovery Plan

A data recovery plan is the research design used to organize collection of data from a site. The data recovery plan must be responsive to the need to recover from the site a usable sample of data on all relevant research problems. If this is not feasible, a clear and defensible rationale for collecting data on a smaller range of problems at the expense of others must be presented (See Appendix 3; 36 CFR Part 66.2.a).

6.2.7 Excavation

Excavation is a primary method of collecting ar chaeological data. It involves the controlled removal and recording of cultural material and associated en vironmental data from a site context. Many methods of excavation are available and may be used singly, or in combination on the same site. Data recovery ex cavation of lithic scatters will be done in accord with the guidelines in the Handbook for the Treatment of Archaeological Properties (ACHP 1980). The focus of this, work will be structured by those research topics deemed appropriate from Appendix 1. The excava tion will be guided by a data recovery plan prepared by, or under the guidance of, the Forest Ar chaeologist and reviewed by the State Historic Preser vation Office. All standard archaeological field methods used for excavation (e.g., mapping, provenience control, photography, recording, etc.) will be used as appropriate. A report will be prepared that summarizes the data recovered from every site excavation conducted as part of this PMOA.

6.3 Analysis

Analysis is the means by which data are studied and related to other information. Analytical techniques in clude means of studying all archaeological and re lated environmental data. Traditional techniques will be used on data from these sites. In addition to basic analYSiS, which focuses on the description of data and their characteristic attributes, comparative analYSis will be a goal of investigation conducted under this PMOA. Comparative analysis and syn thesis of the results strive to place data in a regional perspective by comparing them to data recovered from other sites. In this way inter-site comparisons and contrasts are achieved and research questions with a regional focus can be addressed. All reports done for lithic scatter sites under this PMOA will in volve comparative analysis and synthesis of the recovered data.

6.4 Reporting

Data recovery is not complete (and the significance of the data contained in these sites is not realized) until an interpretive report describing the project and discussing the methodology used, research questions addressed, results obtained, and conclusions reached has been prepared. It should also include and analysis of expected results versus real results.

The final report shall contain the reason(s) for the proposed project, a thorough description of the methods employed during the fieldwork as well as the analyses, a representation of the recovered data, and the author's observations and conclusions. The data recovery plan will also be reproduced in the final report. The report shall meet current professional standards. It will be made available to the profes sional community. Appropriately edited versions will be made available to the interested public.

Given the importance of a final report, all data recovery projects (including collection of surface sites when done as data recovery, see Surface Collection section, above) will be documented by a professional ly acceptable report.

6.5 Curation

Curation is the storage and care of materials recovered from an archaeological site. Care will be taken to ensure that all recovered materials are stored and cared for in an appropriate manner. Use of designated museums and academic institutions will be required for all specimens other than those used in current interpretive displays.

6.6 Interpretation

Communication of the data inherent in lithic scatter sites to other professionals, as well as lay people. is a key element in the full realization of the value of these sites. Professional interpretation occurs most often in reports that address and attempt to answer research questions. Interpretation for the general public usually occurs in the context of displays, brochures. or other generalized communications that disseminate information from archaeological sites.

Professional interpretation will occur as part of the reports required for data recovery projects and during the updating of overviews when new data are sum marized and synthesized. Public interpretation will be pursued in situations when relevant factors (e.g., nature of data, visitor use, etc.) warrant such efforts.

Various techniques are available to ensure that per tinent information is recovered from lithic scatter sites. These techniques include:

6.7 Mapping

Mapping of lithic scatter sites occurs during several different stages of the investigations. During inven tory and recording of a site, the field investigator makes a sketch map showing sit~ features. During a controlled surface collection a map is made to provide a reference point for all collected items. In test excavation or data recovery projects a site map is made to serve as a base for recording the relative positions of excavation units, major features, and other items of interest. All maps are oriented to a datum--a permanent feature of the site that can be relocated on the ground. All maps become a part of the permanent record of a site.

6.8 Data Recording

Data are recorded in all phases of investigation of a lithic scatter, from inventory through data recovery.

The basic means of data recording is to complete a site form which documents all relevant attributes of the site and the surrounding environment. For most sites the site form is merely a short summary of their data potential, but for some small surface lithic scat ters a completed site form (coupled with a surface col lection of a sample of the material) is sufficient to achieve data recovery. Any such site shall be careful ly evaluated by the Forest Archaeologist and a report will be prepared for each, summarizing the data recovered from it. These reports will be provided to the SHPO.

The drainage basin orientation used by the SHPO will be adopted when recording lithic scatter sites.

This technique will facilitate the inter-drainage com parison of site data.

Data recording also occurs during the test excavation and data recovery phases of investigating a site.

Standard archaeological data recording techniques will be used. These include written deSCription, il lustration, and photography.

6.9 Surface Collection

Depending on the research question addressed, sur face collection of specimens can have different orien tations (e.g., some collections attempt to recover all types of specimens from a given area of the site;

others are focused on recovering all individual specimens of a certain type of artifact from the entire site). The appropriate type of site map will be made for surface collected lithic scatter sites. Point plotted surface collection is a valid recovery technique that requires careful documentation of the locations of specimens that are collected.

6.10 Sampling

Sampling systems are used to expedite collection and analysis of data from lithic scatter sites. The pur pose of the technique is to reduce a large body of data to a size that will be manageable for collection.

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