J.17 – Activity Design Level Gender Analysis.pdf

TRANSFORM WASH |GENDER ANALYSIS

TRANSFORM WASH GENDER

ANALYSIS

BACKGROUND

Adequate water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) are vital to the survival and well-being of every human.

Yet, the gendered dimensions of WASH negatively affect women and girls’ abilities to equally access, participate in, and benefit from improved services and products and can diminish their ability to adopt improved hygiene behaviors. With a population of 27,909,798 million, Mozambique is part of the group of African countries with the least coverage of drinking water supply. Of the roughly 18 million people living in rural areas, only 46% of them have access to drinking water versus 78% of households in urban areas (DNAAS: 2018). Sanitation coverage is also low with only 37% of households having improved sanitation infrastructure, and 23% of the population practicing open defecation. (INE: 2017).

Each day, across the world, women and girls spend roughly 200,000 hours collecting water, time that could be spent on improving their education, livelihoods, socializing or caring for their families. This is similarly the case in Mozambique where only eight percent of households have water on their premise.

Low coverage, combined with clearly defined gender roles whereby women are charged with water collection, means 80% of women and 4% of girls act as the primary water collector for their families, spending between two to five hours per day fetching water.12 Water collection and other domestic responsibilities means that women end up having much longer and harder working days compared to their husbands, and are not able to find sufficient time to rest or to engage in other productive activities.

Significant rates of open defecation (37% in rural areas) means millions of households, women and girls in particular, must sacrifice safety, dignity and privacy in carrying out a basic biological need.

Given the various social dimensions affecting WASH and as a result of improved WASH, a gender analysis was completed to gain a deeper understanding of the gendered elements for WASH and to identify areas in which Transform WASH will address through its activities. The gender analysis findings are presented following the key gender domains defined in ADS 205 as they relate to water, sanitation, and hygiene: 1) laws, policies, and institutional context; 2) cultural norms and beliefs; (3) roles and responsibilities and time use; (4) access to and control of resources; and 5) patterns of power and decision-making.

1 World Health Organization Safely managed drinking water - thematic report on drinking water, 2017.

2 Van Houweling, Emily. 2014. “Gendered water spaces; A study of the transition from wells to handpumps in Mozambique.” Gender, Place and

Culture; A Journal of Feminist Geography. DOI:10.1080/0966369X.2014.970140.

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0966369X.2014.970140#.VF5-9_mUcwE

FINDINGS BY DOMAIN

DOMAIN 1: LAWS, POLICIES, REGULATIONS, AND INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT

Mozambique has well-established policies and institutional mechanisms that promote gender equality.

The Ministry of Gender, Children, and Social Action was established in 2000, and within it sits the National Directorate of Gender responsible for advising on gender policies and facilitating gender mainstreaming. In 2002, GRM developed National Action Plans for the Advancement of Women as well as a Gender Equality Policy and Implementation Strategy, which together advance the status of women by promoting gender equality:

(1) The Constitution of the Republic of Mozambique ensures equal rights and duties for all Mozambicans. Articles 35 and 36 establish that men and women are equal before the law, in all areas of political, economic and social life, thus enjoying the same rights and subject to the same duties and without discrimination. Article 122 promotes and supports women’s participation, role, and empowerment in all spheres of the country’s political, economic, social and cultural life. Other gender-related legislation includes the Family Law - which guarantees men and women equal rights to property ownership, makes marriage before age 16 illegal under any circumstance and requires parental consent for girls to marry under age 18 - the Law on Domestic Violence, and the Penal Code.

(2) The Government's Five-Year Program (2015-2019): establishes, within the framework of its priorities, “Combat all manifestations of discrimination and exclusion based on differences in culture, ethnicity, origin, gender, race, religion, region of origin and political party affiliation”.

(3) The land law 19/97: In its article 3 it says "the land is owned by the State and cannot be sold or, in any way alienated, mortgaged or pledged". This law says that any male and female citizen of Mozambican nationality can explore the land upon request. Although the law clearly states that both men and women have the right to use and benefit from the land, few women have title to property; due on the one hand to the lack of knowledge of the law and on the other hand due to the customary laws that favor men in possession of the land..

(4) Agenda 2025 (2003): defines the achievement of gender equity, through the strengthening of institutions that deal with women's issues; strengthening inter-institutional coordination mechanisms; and the change in mentality with a view to enhancing the role of women.

(5) Gender Policy and Implementation Strategy (MMAS: 2006): operationalizes the Government's intentions in the promotion of women and broadens the angle of gender issues by establishing as a target group: (i) “women and men living in poverty absolute; (ii) elderly, disabled and unemployed women and men; (iii) women, men and children affected by HIV / AIDS; (d) women in the informal sector; (iv) rural and working women; (v) young people, adults and elderly with no education of both sexes ”.

(6) Gender Strategy in the Public Service (2009-2013): defines “Integration of the dimension of gender equality as an operating principle, from diagnosis to the definition of policies, objectives, actions, implementation.

(7) Water Policy (2007): establishes the need to promote the participation of communities and water users, with an emphasis on the role of women in the planning, implementation, management, use and maintenance of water and sanitation supply infrastructures.

(8) National Water Resources Management Strategy (2007): proposes the incorporation of a gender perspective in the programmatic actions of the institutions involved in the management of water resources, including the balanced representation of men and women in the management of water supply systems.

In 2017, DNAAS adopted a gender strategy for the rural water and sanitation sector. The strategy includes seven strategic actions: (1) Integration of the Gender Approach in the Water and Sanitation Sector; (2) Equitable Participation of Men and Women in Decision-Making Forums; (3) Integration of the Gender Approach in Water Sector Planning and Sanitation; (4) Development of Institutional Technical Capabilities in Gender Optics; (5) Transversal Themes in the Gender Perspective (HIV-AIDS, Neglected Diseases; (6) Accessibility, Food Security, Productive Water Use, Menstrual Management); (7) Communication and Visibility of Gender Optics; Mechanisms of Monitoring and Evaluation.3 Despite the strategy, a study carried out by DNAAS (2012/2013) indicates that over 90% of the staff working in institutions within the sector is men.

Following an analysis of sector legislation, we conclude that while most legal instruments emphasize the active participation of women, in reality, there is a weak institutional knowledge and experience in addressing gender and local enforcement of laws and policies remains a significant challenge.

DOMAIN II: CULTURAL NORMS AND BELIEFS

With regards to gender dynamics, broadly speaking, Mozambique is a patriarchal culture whereby men hold most positions of power and influence both nationally and locally. Men are generally better off in terms of employment, income, education, and health.4 They control land and other basic means of agricultural production according to cultural norms. Men are also seen as the head of the household with responsibility for providing for the family.5 Although the law clearly states that both men and women have the right to use and benefit from the land, few women have title to property; due on the one hand to the lack of knowledge of the law and on the other hand due to the customary laws that favor men in possession of the land.

In Mozambique’s rural areas, 88% of households rely on adult women as their primary water gatherers.

In urban areas, inadequate sanitation offered by traditional facilities leads to psychosocial stress, especially for women who are often afraid to use toilets at night when they may be at risk of physical or sexual assault. Shared sanitation facilities offer some reprieve from sanitation-related stressors (e.g.

greater privacy and less embarrassment for those using shared latrines) but women still experience stress associated with disgust due to challenges in maintaining and cleaning shared toilets . As a result, 3 DNAAS. PRONASAR Program Document (2018-2030). English draft version. December 2018.

4 UNICEF, 2011. Child Poverty and Disparities in Mozambique 2010.

5 USAID., 2018. Feed the Future Mozambique Agricultural Innovations Activity (FTF Inova). Findings from a Qualitative Study on Gender Norms in Farming, Input Use, and Distribution in Manica Province.

women and girls in Mozambique are disproportionately affected by inadequate access to water and sanitation with consequences across their life course (WASHPaLS Mozambique inception report).

Those strong beliefs about gender roles often make it difficult for women to find work outside of the home, and when they do, they are often not supported by their husbands. Men are often seen as the breadwinners, while women are expected to stay at home and care for the children. In 2018, just 5.8% of women in Mozambique held paying jobs, compared to 23.7% of men (Technoserve 2020).

The southern region includes Inhambane, Gaza and Maputo provinces. They are characterized as the most economically developed given their proximity to South Africa because of the location of Maputo, the nation’s economic and political hub. Women in the south are the most active in participating in social and economic activities given that it is quite common for many men to migrate to South Africa or other urban areas for work. While women have more autonomy in decision making, they must also shoulder the burden of being a single-headed household, including bearing the burden for poor water and sanitation access.

Beliefs related to gender identity and roles as they relate to water can be found in Van Houwelling’s ethnographic study in Nampula province. When asked how men and women would describe a “good wife” or “good husband”, both men and women felt that a good Makhuwa wife works in the fields and completes her domestic responsibilities (cooking, washing clothes, cleaning and caretaking – all of which requires water) without difficulties. When he returns home from the field, she offers him a glass of water as an affirmation of his position, a gesture of her appreciation. A good wife also provides water for her husband’s bath, or may withhold bath water as a sign of her dissatisfaction. The definition of a “good husband” builds a secure house and a “casa de banho” for his family, among other attributes.

DOMAIN III: ROLES, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND TIME USE

In Mozambique, traditional gender roles within households exist whereby men are responsible for heavy labor such as preparation of farmland and caring for large livestock such as cattle, while women are responsible for all tasks related to care in the home and of the family—cooking, fetching water, collecting firewood, cleaning, and child care. For example, throughout Mozambique, the construction of houses, “casa de banho”is perceived to be male responsibility. attribute in the whole country. A woman’s role includes ensuring that children learn the basic hygiene practices like handwashing, personal hygiene, the proper use and cleaning of latrines, etc. Gender roles are defined early in life and children are taught early to take on roles that are deemed “appropriate” with boys trained herding, hunting and warfare while girls are taught how to fetch firewood, carry water, cook, and tell stories.

Children are expected to be compliant, obedient, and respectful.6

Globally, the responsibility of water collection falls squarely on the shoulders of women and girls. In rural Mozambique, only a small minority (eight percent) of the richest households have access to water on their premises. In 84 percent of Mozambique homes without water on their premises, the main persons responsible for carrying water are women (80 percent) and girls (4 percent).7 Men take pride in

Ndege, George, 2007. Culture and Customs of Mozambique. Greenwood Press.2007

7 World Health Organization. 2017. Safely managed drinking water: a thematic report on drinking water.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6xmWfGwmv9A&feature=emb_title http://datatopics.worldbank.org/gender/country/mozambique not having to fetch water as it is a sign they have a hard-working family. There are exceptions, as men will help a woman collect water if she is sick, pregnant, travelling outside the village or during the dry season. They will not however admit to sharing household responsibilities, instead framing the involvement as “helping” their wives.8 It is also noteworthy that while approximately five percent of men assist with carrying water, this water is used mainly for construction of bricks and houses, which can be collected at the nearest unimproved water source. Women and girls, on the other hand, are charged with finding potable water for cooking and drinking, which is often further away, requiring more time and effort. 9

While national statistics indicate that more than 25 percent of households spend more than 30 minutes per day collecting water, data from program evaluations and research indicate the number to be between 2 and 5 hours. Within the MCC intervention areas in Nampula Province, before water points were installed, some women were observed sleeping overnight at water points or arriving at 2:00 or 3:00 A.M. to fetch water.10 During the 2016 drought in southern Mozambique, time spent fetching water increased from 2-5 hours to an average of 10-12 hours a day. The increased time burden resulted in girls having to drop out of school to assist their mothers in collecting water and taking care of younger siblings. In addition, the scarcity of water also compromised hygiene for women and girls as the water available is prioritized for drinking or cooking. 11

Given their other domestic activities, women end up having much longer and harder working days compared to their husbands and are not able to find sufficient time to rest and relax. Studies from other countries indicate that the amount of time required to collect water is a cause of stress because of outstanding household tasks, anxiety about children left at home alone, or husbands’ suspicions o f the time spent away from the home.12 Following the installation of handpumps within MCC-supported areas, households were able to gain an extra 55 minutes a day; the time saved was used for domestic activities, resting, family activities/child care, and farming. In the same evaluation, for every 100 households that had a community hand pump installed, 27 fewer households reported that their children’s school attendance was negatively affected by fetching water.

Within the area of hygiene promotion, there has been a shift away from health education messages to more motivational messages by creating associations between nurture, pride, and good motherhood with improved hygiene. However well-intentioned these campaigns may be, they may also reinforce gender-related stereotypes (that women/mothers are the nurturers) and inadvertently cause caretakers to feel that they are inadequate because they forgot to wash their hands. Behavior change programs need to be designed through a gender lens to avoid these pitfalls.

8 Van Houwelling, Emily. 2014. “Gendered water spaces: A study of the transition from wells to hand pumps in Mozambique. Gender, Space, Place and Culture. A Journal of Feminist Geography. DOI:10.1080/0966369X.2014.970140.

9 Ibid.

10 Ibid.

11 UNFPA. 2016. Women and Drought in Southern Mozambique: More Responsibilities, Less Power and Increased Vulnerabilities. A study in

Funhalouro, Panda, Chicualacuala, Chigubo, Magude and Moamba.

Sclar, G.D, Penakalapati G, Caruso B.A.,Rehfueess, E.A. Garn J.V., Alexander, K.T., Freeman M.C., Boisson S., Medlicott, K., Clasen T. Exploring the relationship between sanitation and mental and social well-being: A systematic review and qualitative synthesis. Social Science & Medicine.

217. Pp 121-134.

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0966369X.2014.970140#.VF5-9_mUcwE

DOMAIN IV: ACCESS TO AND CONTROL OVER ASSETS AND RESOURCES

According to the Constitution of Mozambique, the Family Law, and the Land Law, women possess the same land-use rights as men. However, many women are not aware of this right and are challenged by illiteracy and insufficient information; only 25 percent of women possess registered land rights.13

Without land or property rights, it can be more difficult for women to gain access to services such as water connections or credit for latrine investments, among other services.

Access to water varies considerably. Few distinct rural and peri-urban Mozambican settlements have their own water supply. For some settlements relatively good access with a water pump half to 1 km from settlement. But many areas water source over 1km and up to 3 or 4 km settlement (especially small Mozambican settlements). The majority of settlements use boreholes, followed by shallow wells.

Frequently there are points of tension and conflict over water when two or more borehole pumps near big settlements have broken, leaving pressure on the remaining source. The local chiefs structure holds control over the pump. In some settlements, a water committee was formed in order to organize and support maintenance for broken pumps.

DOMAIN V: PATTERNS OF POWER AND DECISION-MAKING

Mozambique is a multiparty parliamentary democracy with a freely elected republican form of government. It is in the top 20 countries for female representation, with 40 percent of national Parliament positions filled by women (99 of the 250 seats). At the lower levels of government, women fill 37 percent of local government seats. Regional differences exist; more women are in district and administrative posts in the southern and central regions than in the northern parts of the country.

Globally, there is emerging evidence that women involved in local governments are more likely to support public investment in drinking water and sanitation than their male counterparts. In addition, the presence of women in leadership roles also increases men’s willingness to contribute money towards public goods.14 Given the high rates of female representation in all tiers of the GRM, there are significant opportunities to elevate the need for improved WASH among provincial and national level female decision-makers who can influence government investments in the WASH sector.

Beyond political representative Strengthening Water Sector Governance in, participation of women in the planning and management of WASH investments at the community level can also affect sustainability. Data from Uganda illustrates that the leadership of women in the WASH committees

13 SIDA Collier et al., 2007.

14 Asingwire, Natarius. 2011. “Assessment of the Effectiveness of the Community Based Maintenance System for Rural Water Supply Facilities”.

Kampala. Uganda Ministry of Water and Environment and Directorate of Water Development.Beaman, L., Duflo, E., Pande, R., and Petia T.

“Political Reservation and Substantive Representation. Evidence from Indian Village Councils.” 2010; and Chattopadhyay, Ragha bendra and Esther Duflo.” Women as Policy Makers: Evidence from a Randomized Policy Experiment.” Econometrica 72(5): 1409 -1443 increased the likelihood that water schemes were functional.15 Women’s participation in water point committees, in theory, has been integrated into water supply programs often through requirements that women make up at least 50 percent of the committee members. In reality, the quota may not always be met and it is not uncommon to find women taking on support roles such as Secretary rather than in leadership roles such as the Chair.

The most notable example of gender integration at the community level is the encouragement of women’s participation on water committees. With support from DFID, the national rural water supply and sanitation program (PRONASAR) tracks women’s representation on and leadership positions within water committees. Respondents described many challenges to women’s power on these committees, including low literacy and husbands’ opposition to women’s participation. One informant said that communities select women who are not outspoken for water committees so that they will not challenge the status quo (WASHPaLS Mozambique Inception report).

Data on women’s empowerment and ability to make decisions is mixed. In 2015, the AIDS Indicator Survey was conducted, which revealed that 66 percent of married women were participating in making key decisions up from 52.5 percent in 2011. However, when asked about their ability to decide themselves how their earnings are used only 39 percent of women reported being able to do that, a decrease from 45.7 percent in 2011.16

Although laws and policies are important, they are only as strong as their implementation and it would be important to determine appropriate ways to increase awareness of and demand for implementation at the community level.

Care study indicates that for instance, before the cyclone, women and men were responsible for, and would make decisions about, different aspects of family life. It was difficult to make a direct comparison between male and female perceptions on decision-making in the household (HH) survey due to women being from single FHH and men from married couples. However, for the majority of decisions made, male respondents said they made this jointly with their wives. For single FHH’s they expressed that they were the decision maker for the majority of decisions. This was seen not to have changed since the crisis for either men or women. It came out during the male FGDs, that men will collaborate with their wives but feel that they have really made the final decision. Others felt that although men are seen as the providers, because women take care of the children and the home, they have more power when it comes to decisions regarding the home. (Care Rapid Gender Analysis, April 2019). The majority of positions in community structure, at every level, are male dominant. During the household survey, when asked ‘Who makes decisions in your community since the crisis began?’, both male and female respondents identified Local Government, with some elders and community/neighborhood leaders as being the core decision makers. (Care Rapid Gender Analysis, April 2019).

15 Ibid. Asingwire, Notarius. 2011. “Assessment of the Effectiveness of the Community Based Maintenance System for Rural Water Supply

Facilities.” Kampala. Uganda Ministry of Water and Environment and Directorate of Water Development.

16 Ibid.