Introduction to SBEM for Terrestrial Weather (2024-05-07).pdf

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© The Aerospace Corporation, 2023

Introduction to Space Based

Environmental Monitoring (SBEM) for Terrestrial Weather

Brian Kabat

Bob Wacker

May 7, 2024

Distribution Statement A. Approved for public release: distribution unlimited.

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Overview

1. DoD Weather Enterprise and the Role of

Space Based Environmental

Monitoring (SBEM)

2. Current DoD SBEM

Requirements Documents

3. Scientific Principles of SBEM

4. Today's SBEM

Family of Systems (FoS)

University of Wisconsin Space Science and Engineering Center (SSEC)

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1. DoD Weather Enterprise and the Role of SBEM Overview

• The Forecast Process

• DoD Weather Forecasting

Organizations and Functions

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1. DoD Weather Enterprise and the Role of SBEM The Forecast Process

• The purpose of Air Force Weather and Navy Meteorology and Oceanography (METOC) is to produce mission-tailored forecast products, integrated into warfighter planning and execution of military operations

Numerical Weather

Prediction (NWP) Models:

• Global

• Regional

• Fine-Scale

• Specialized

• Ensemble

Mission-tailored, integrated weather forecast productsand/or

Machine-to-machine interfaces

Human

Forecasters

The Warfighter

Remotely-sensed observations:

• SBEM

• Radar

• GNSS-RO

In-situ observations:

• Weather balloons

• Ocean buoys

• Aircraft reports

• Ship reports

• Surface observations

.f ro m a v a ri e ty o f

D o D c iv il, i n te rn a ti o n a l s o u rc e s

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1. DoD Weather Enterprise and the Role of SBEM The Forecast Process

• Meteorological

Observation

Sources

– In Situ

• Surface Observations

• Upper Air Observations

(weather balloons)

• Aircraft Reports

• Ship Reports

• Ocean Buoys

– Remotely Sensed

• Active: Radar

• Passive:

– SBEM

– GNSS Radio

Occultation

(GNSS-RO) College of DuPage

University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR)Aviation Weather Center

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1. DoD Weather Enterprise and the Role of SBEM The Forecast Process

• Numerical Weather

Prediction (NWP) models

– Global

– Regional

– Fine-scale

– Specialized

– Ensemble

• Data Assimilation is the critical first step in NWP. It is the process of optimally combining diverse, asynchronous data sources, each with different error characteristics, into a best estimate of the current state of the atmosphere. Models use this current analysis, along with the equations governing atmospheric physics and dynamics, to predict future states of the atmosphere.

NOAA NCEI

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1. DoD Weather Enterprise and the Role of SBEM DoD Weather Forecasting Organizations and Functions

USAF

(supports USAF, USSF, Army, IC)

Navy

(supports USN, USMC, IC)

National Oceanographic and

Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA; civil weather forecasting for US and its possessions)

Strategic Level

Global data collection, NWP and other global product production, dissemination via web and other means

557th Weather Wing (557WW)

Offutt AFB, NE

Fleet Numerical Meteorology and

Oceanography Center (FNMOC)

Monterey, CA

Naval Oceanographic Office

(NAVOCEANO)

Stennis Space Center, MS

National Environmental Satellite

Data and Information Service

(NESDIS)

National Centers for

Environmental Information

(NCEI)

Operational Level

Theater weather data and forecast production and dissemination

Operational Weather Squadrons

(INDOPACOM, EUCOM,

AFRICOM, CENTCOM,

NORTHCOM (3), SOUTHCOM,

SOCOM)

Fleet Weather Center Norfolk

Fleet Weather Center San Diego

National Weather Service Storm

Prediction Center (SPC)

NWS Aviation Weather Center

(AWC)

National Hurricane Center (NHC) Joint Typhoon Warning Center

Pearl Harbor, HI

Tactical Level

Local advisories, watches, warnings, and mission-tailored forecasts

>200 AF Base and Army Post

Weather Flights

Meteorology and Oceanography

(METOC) personnel aboard

Navy warships

NWS Forecast Offices (FO)

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2. Current DoD SBEM Requirements Documents Overview

• Documentation Chronology

• The SBEM Terrestrial

Weather Requirements Gaps

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2. Current DoD SBEM Requirements Documents Documentation Chronology

• 2009: METOC Initial Capabilities Document (ICD):

Defined all environmental parameters that must be sensed, analyzed, predicted, or obtained to enable joint military operations; identified gaps in

DoD sensing capabilities

• 2012: Joint Requirements Oversight Council Memo (JROCM)

091-12: Identified the subset of parameters to be addressed with space-based solutions and categorized them by operational importance

• 2013: SBEM Analysis of Alternatives (AoA): Studied the degree to which DoD, civil, and international SBEM assets could satisfy the collection gaps; recommended materiel solution the address 3 of 12 Category A gaps

• 2014: JROCM 092-14: Directed materiel solution for gaps 3, 8, and 11

(which became WSF-M); updated threshold and objective requirements for

Cat A gaps

• Subsequent JROCMs further refined refresh requirements and directed materiel solutions for Gaps 1 and 2 (which became EWS)

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2. Current DoD SBEM Requirements Documents The SBEM Terrestrial Weather Requirements Gaps (JROCMs 091-12 and 092-14)

Category A: Parameters insufficiently met by space and ground-based systems which may potentially lead to mission failure

Prioritized parameters Resolution Accuracy Timeliness Refresh Rate

1. Cloud Characterization 1 km 10 min 4 hr

2. Theater Weather Imagery Sufficient to resolve clouds, fog, thunderstorms, sandstorms, and dust storms

15 min 4 hr

(15 min desired)

3. Ocean Surface Vector Winds

(OSVW)

25 km Speed +/- 2 m/s and direction +/- 15º

3 hr 6 hr

4. Ionospheric Density 10 km +/-10% or

+/- 1 TEC (total electron content) unit

10 min 30 min

5. Snow Depth 25 km +/-10% 2 hr 24 hr

6. Soil Moisture (at 5 cm depth) 50 km +/- 6% 2 hr 24 hr (early AM)

7. Equatorial (<30º latitude) Ionospheric

Scintillation

10 km Phase < 0.1 radians 10 min 30 min

8. Tropical Cyclone Intensity 20 km 3 hr 6 hr

9. Sea Ice Characterization 20 km Distinguish first vs. multi-year 24 hr

10. Auroral Characterization

11. Low Earth Orbit (LEO) >1 keV

Energetic Charged Particle (ECP)

Characterization

2 hr 10 sec (sensor on spacecraft)

12. Electric Field 10 km +/- 3 mV/m 10 min 30 min

* Gray indicates space weather parameters

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2. Current DoD SBEM Requirements Documents The SBEM Terrestrial Weather Requirements Gaps (JROCMs 091-12 and 092-14)

• Category B: Parameters not fully met; additional collection would improve ops and/or no mission failure if not met. (Not prioritized)

1. Aerosol optical thickness

2. Aerosol particle size

3. Total ozone content/vertical

4. Suspended matter

5. Origination point of smoke

6. Blowing dust/sand/snow

7. Dust

8. Haze

9. Hexachloroethene

10. Oil smoke

11. Sand

12. Smoke

13. Volcanic ash

14. White phosphorous

15. Temperature profile

16. Total Integrated water content

17. Water vapor vertical profile

18. Integrated precipitable water

19. Trapped electrons

20. Liquid precipitation rate

21. Net surface shortwave radiation

22. Neutral density

23. Trapped protons

24. Cloud base height

25. Cloud ice

26. Cloud layers

27. Cloud particle size

28. Geomagnetic fields

29. Condition of the ground

30. Land Locked ice cover

31. Snow/Ice Cover

32. Height of the E layer

33. Height of the F layer

34. Currents and physical discontinuities

35. Salinity profile

36. Near shore/littoral current direction

37. Near shore/littoral current speed

38. Vector of water current

39. Sea surface temperature

40. Swell direction

41. Wind waves direction

42. Significant wave height

43. Net surface longwave radiation

44. Lightning detection

45. Neutral temperatures

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2. Current DoD SBEM Requirements Documents The SBEM Terrestrial Weather Requirements Gaps (JROCMs 091-12 and 092-14)

• Category C: Parameters sufficiently met by ground-based and/or partner space organizations.

(Not prioritized)

1. Fire detection

2. Wind direction

3. Wind speed

4. Surface type

5. Vegetation greenness

6. Vegetation index

7. Vegetation type

8. Bioluminescence

9. Ocean color

10. Sea surface height

11. Net top of atmosphere longwave radiation

12. Net top of atmosphere shortwave radiation

13. Riverine bathymetry

14. Riverine currents

15. Ice surface temperature

16. Sea ice edge location

17. Surface albedo

18. Solar extended ultraviolet (EUV) flux

19. Solar EUV imagery

20. Solar magneto-heliograph

21. Solar white light coronagraph

22. Solar X-ray imagery

23. Solar X-ray total flux

24. Solar high energy protons, electrons, and galactic cosmic rays

25. Solar wind 3-d magnetic field components

26. Solar wind 3-d plasma velocity components

27. Solar wind plasma temperature

28. Solar wind 3-d magnetic field

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM Overview

• The Electromagnetic

Spectrum Applied to SBEM

• SBEM Orbits

• SBEM Sensor Types

• SBEM Capabilities and

Corresponding Sensor

Characteristics

NOAA NESDIS

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM The Electromagnetic Spectrum Applied to SBEM

SBEM

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM The Electromagnetic Spectrum Applied to SBEM

• The Sun and the Earth emit radiation in different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum

Petty 2006

The sun, at around ~6000 K, emits most of its electromagnetic radiation in the visible and shortwave IR...

...so at wavelengths shorter than about 4 µm, we are looking at reflected solar radiation

...we call this

"shortwave radiation"

The Earth, at

~250-300 K, emits most of its electromagnetic radiation in the longwave IR

...so at wavelengths longer than about

4 µm, we are looking at emitted terrestrial radiation

...we call this

"longwave radiation"

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM The Electromagnetic Spectrum Applied to SBEM

• The atmosphere absorbs radiation passing through it to varying degrees at thousands of different

IR wavelengths

– About five IR "windows" exist in the shortwave spectrum

(.75 µm to 2.5 µm)

– Another exists between about 8-12 µm in the longwave spectrum

Visible Shortwave IR Longwave IR

Petty 2006

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM The Electromagnetic Spectrum Applied to SBEM

• The microwave (MW) atmospheric absorption spectrum is less complicated, with only 4 primary absorption bands (two caused by O2 and two caused by water vapor), along with increasing absorption due to water vapor with increasing frequency

Petty 2006

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM The Electromagnetic Spectrum Applied to SBEM

• When radiation encounters particles, scattering occurs in addition to absorption;

scattering behavior falls into three basic categories determined by the size of the particle relative to the wavelength of the radiation

• Visible/IR

1. Air molecules = Raleigh (blue sky)

2. Aerosols/dust/cloud droplets = Mie (white clouds)

3. Raindrops/ice crystals = Geometric (rainbows)

• MW

1. Cloud droplets = Raleigh (negligible for low freqs;

increasing absorption at higher freqs)

2. Raindrops/ice crystals = Mie

(absorption at low freqs; scattering at higher freqs)

Petty 2006

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Orbits

Geostationary (GEO) Orbit:

- Orbital Radius ~42000 km

- Altitude ~36000 km

- Orbital Period: 24 hr

- Orbital Inclination: 0º

- Remains stationary over a fixed equatorial longitude

- Maintains constant visibility over a fixed region

Polar Sun-Synchronous Low-Earth Orbit (LEO):

- Orbital Radius ~7200 km

- Altitude ~830 km

- Orbital Period: 101 min; 14.25 orbits per day

- Orbital Inclination: 98º

- Orbital plane remains fixed relative to relative to Sun-Earth line

- Orbit described in terms of Local Time of Ascending Node (LTAN)

- With >2800 km sensor swath width, one satellite can achieve global coverage every 12 hours

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Orbits - Geostationary

Drawbacks:

• Useful resolution requires large sensors and high data rates

• Can't see poleward of about 60° latitude

• Microwave instruments not practical

Benefits:

• Rapid-refresh (~15 min) hemispheric imagery; more rapid for smaller image sectors

• Very low data latency

• Continuous coverage between ~50ºS and ~50ºN with five satellites

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Orbits - LEO Sun-synchronous Polar

Drawbacks:

• Sensors limited to ~3000 km sensor swath width from typical ~830 km altitude

• Data latency between stored data playbacks to ground stations

Benefits:

• Visible, IR, and active/passive microwave instruments are practical from LEO

• Useful resolution possible with smaller sensors than GEO

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Sensor Types

• Geostationary visible and IR radiometers

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Sensor Types

• LEO visible and IR radiometers

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Sensor Types

• LEO passive microwave imagers and sounders

Conical Scanning Cross-track Scanning

NASA

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Sensor Types

• LEO active microwave scatterometers

Rotating Beam Fixed Beam

Alsweiss et al 2014

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Capabilities and

Corresponding Sensor Characteristics

• Gap 1: Cloud Characterization

– Enables forecasters to predict cloud-free line of site for the intelligence community, to assist pilots in sensor selection, and to assist ISR assets in picking operating areas

– Automated pixel-level analysis of cloud cover, day or night, over all surface types, requires:

• Bands spanning the visible/IR spectrum:

– Visible (red, blue)

– NIR (0.86 µm)

– SWIR (1.25 and 1.6 µm)

– MWIR (3.75 and 3.9 µm)

– LWIR (8.5 µm)

– Thermal IR (11 and 12 µm)

• Spatial resolutions of hundreds of meters to a few km

• Radiometric accuracy of ~0.2%

(e.g., 0.12 K brightness temperature error for a 300 K pixel)

557 WW

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Capabilities and

Corresponding Sensor Characteristics

• Gap 1: Cloud Characterization

– Individual image-level cloud analyses are merged at regular intervals into a global gridded analysis of cloud coverage amounts, cloud layer base and top heights, and cloud-top temperatures

– Additional cloud products are also required by specific customers and can be retrieved using visible, NIR, SWIR, MWIR, and LWIR bands:

• Cloud Phase (ice/liquid): determined using additional tests employing visible, MWIR, SWIR, TIR bands

• Cloud Optical Depth

• Cloud Liquid Water

• Cloud Particle Size

• Aerosol Optical Depth

University of Wisconsin

Space Science and Engineering Center

Determined using physical-statistical retrievals employing NWP output, radiative transfer models, and observed visible/NIR/SWIR/MWIR/LWIR/TIR radiances

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Capabilities and

Corresponding Sensor Characteristics

• Gap 2: Theater Weather Imagery

– Animated theater-scale imagery from GEO satellites is the primary SBEM tool used by human forecasters

• GEO Water Vapor Band (~7 µm) Imagery (example)

• GEO Thermal IR (11-12 µm) Imagery (example)

• GEO Visible (red/blue/true color) Imagery (example)

– Forecasters receive and view animated GEO imagery via:

• 557 WW or FNMOC NIPR/SIPR/JWICS webpages

• Non-DoD webpages

(e.g. Univ of Wisconsin SSEC, College of DuPage)

• NIPR/SIPR/JWICS servers connected to Air Force

Mark IV-B in-theater direct readout (DRO) terminals

• Navy SMQ-11 DRO terminals aboard warships and

FMQ-17 DRO terminals ashore

– Primary benefit: full-disk rapid-refresh animated imagery

– Primary drawback: lack of coverage poleward of ~60° latitude University of Wisconsin

Space Science and Engineering Center https://www.ssec.wisc.edu/data/geo/#/animation?satellite=goes-16&end_datetime=latest&n_images=60&coverage=fd&channel=08 https://www.ssec.wisc.edu/data/geo/#/animation?satellite=himawari09&end_datetime=latest&n_images=48&coverage=wp&channel=15 https://www.ssec.wisc.edu/data/geo/#/animation?satellite=goes-16&end_datetime=latest&n_images=48&coverage=conus&channel=02 https://www.ssec.wisc.edu/data/geo/#/animation https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/ https://m4b-kd-web.us.af.mil/

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Capabilities and

Corresponding Sensor Characteristics

• Gap 2: Theater Weather Imagery

– LEO satellite imagery is a secondary tool used by forecasters in low- and mid-latitudes; primary tool in polar latitudes

• Thermal IR (11-12 µm) Imagery (example)

• Visible (red/blue/true color) Imagery (example)

– Forecasters receive and view polar imagery via:

• NIPR/SIPR/JWICS servers connected to Air Force

Mark IV-B in-theater direct readout (DRO) terminals

• Navy SMQ-11 DRO terminals aboard warships and

FMQ-17 DRO terminals ashore

– Primary benefit: global coverage every 12 hours by each spacecraft; sole source of polar coverage

– Primary drawback: sporadic coverage by narrow-swath

(2500-3000 km) imagery is difficult for forecasters to use

University of Wisconsin

Space Science and Engineering Center http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/db_products/images/TERRADAYLATESTBAND31.GIF http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/db_products/images/TERRADAYLATESTRGB.JPG https://m4b-kd-web.us.af.mil/ http://amrc.ssec.wisc.edu/data/view-data.php?action=view_animation&product=satellite/composite/LWHOURLY-1024

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Capabilities and

Corresponding Sensor Characteristics

• Gap 2: Theater Weather Imagery

– Today's visible/IR imaging instruments share a fairly standard set of about 16 bands:

• Visible (Reflected sunlight; 0.4 - 0.74 µm):

Identify hemispheric-, regional-, and local-scale weather features

• NIR/SWIR (Reflected sunlight and thermal emission; 0.75 - 4 µm):

Discriminate snow/ice from clouds; discriminate liquid from ice clouds;

identify fog/stratus; identify aerosols/dust/smoke/ash; identify wildfires

• MWIR/LWIR (Thermal emission; 4 - 9 µm):

Identify hemispheric- and regional-scale weather features

• Thermal IR (Thermal emission; 9 - 15 µm):

Identify hemispheric-, regional-, and local-scale weather features;

quantify cloud-top heights; quantify ocean surface temperature

– Note: the microwave spectrum offers an entirely different set of imagery capabilities at lower resolution but less affected by clouds

Geostationary Operational

Environmental Satellite

(GOES) Advanced Baseline

Imager (ABI) Bands

Ch 1 0.47 µm

Ch 2 0.64 µm

Ch 3 0.86 µm

Ch 4 1.37 µm

Ch 5 1.61 µm

Ch 6 2.24 µm

Ch 7 3.9 µm

Ch 8 6.2 µm

Ch 9 6.9 µm

Ch 10 7.3 µm

Ch 11 8.5 µm

Ch 12 9.6 µm

Ch 13 10.3 µm

Ch 14 11.2 µm

Ch 15 12.3 µm

Ch 16 13.3 µm

Bold = most commonly used by forecasters https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-01-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-02-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-03-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-04-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-05-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-06-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-07-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-08-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-09-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-10-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-11-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-12-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-13-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-14-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-15-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined https://weather.cod.edu/satrad/?parms=continental-conus-16-24-0-100-1&checked=map&colorbar=undefined

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Capabilities and

Corresponding Sensor Characteristics

• Gap 3: Ocean Surface Vector Winds (OSVW)

– Ocean surface microwave emissivity and reflectivity depend on wind speed and direction relative to the sensor view direction

– A passive microwave instrument carrying imaging bands (10, 19, 22, 37, 90 GHz) and capable of measuring radiances at ~25 km resolution and at all polarizations (vertical, horizontal, +45º, -45º, left circular, right circular) has sufficient information to infer ocean surface wind direction and speed (up to about 25 m s-1)

– Alternatively, an active radar scatterometer can observe the ocean surface reflectivity from multiple viewing angles and infer wind direction and speed

(also up to about 25 m s-1)

NOAA NESDIS STAR

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Capabilities and

Corresponding Sensor Characteristics

• Gap 5: Snow Depth

– A passive microwave instrument carrying imaging bands (10, 19, 22, 37, 90 GHz) and capable of measuring horizontally and vertically-polarized radiances at

~25 km resolution can infer snow depth (and ice age for ocean ice packs) based on changes to the surface microwave emissivity

– Synthetic aperture radar (SAR), scatterometers, and GNSS reflectometry (GNSS-R) also offer some snow depth and ice cover capability.

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Capabilities and

Corresponding Sensor Characteristics

• Gap 6: Soil Moisture (5 cm depth)

– A passive microwave instrument carrying imaging bands (10, 19, 22, 37, 90 GHz) and capable of measuring horizontally- and vertically-polarized radiances at ~25 km resolution can infer surface soil moisture based on changes to the surface microwave emissivity

– Synthetic aperture radar (SAR), scatterometers, and GNSS reflectometry

(GNSS-R) also offer some soil moisture capability.

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Capabilities and

Corresponding Sensor Characteristics

• Gap 8: Tropical Cyclone Intensity

– DoD's Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) relies almost entirely on SBEM to analyze the position and intensity of Western Pacific and Indian Ocean topical cyclones

– Tropical Cyclone Intensity requires a mix of SBEM instruments:

• Animated GEO visible/IR imagery and LEO visible/IR imagery: Forecaster subjective assessment and automated algorithm assessment of position and intensity

• LEO microwave imagery: Forecaster subjective assessment of position and intensity

• LEO microwave sounder bands (50-55 GHz):

Automated intensity estimation algorithms

• LEO OSVWs: Forecaster subjective assessment of position and intensity

• SAR and GNSS-R: Emerging as tools

University of Wisconsin

Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Capabilities and

Corresponding Sensor Characteristics

• Category B: Vertical Temperature and

Moisture Profiles

– For closely-spaced bands on the edge of an atmospheric absorption band, the microwave or IR radiances observed from space are emitted by different vertical layers of the atmosphere

– When assimilated into NWP models, these radiances enable precise determination of the vertical profiles of temperature and humidity globally

– Microwave sounding radiances are the single most important source of data assimilated by today's NWP models

– IR radiances offer more vertical precision, but MW radiation can penetrate clouds

– GNSS-RO refractive indices can also be assimilated into NWP models to provide similar information

Zhou et al 2018

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Capabilities and

Corresponding Sensor Characteristics

• The refraction of GNSS signals by the ionosphere and atmosphere enable vertical profiles of electron density, temperature and humidity...rapidly increasing in importance in space weather modeling and NWP data assimilation

• The reflectivity and polarization of GNSS signals by land, ocean, and ice surfaces enables determination of surface properties...rapidly developing technology www.spaceflight101.com

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3. Scientific Principles of SBEM SBEM Capabilities and

Corresponding Sensor Characteristics

Summary of SBEM Terrestrial Weather Gaps and Corresponding Sensor Types

GEO Visible/IR LEO Visible/IR LEO MW Imagery LEO MW Sounding Other

1. Cloud

Characterization X X

2. Theater Weather

Imagery X X

3. Ocean Surface

Vector Winds X

Scatterometry, GNSS-R, SAR

5. Snow Depth /

Sea Ice Coverage

X GNSS-R, SAR

6. Soil Moisture X GNSS-R, SAR

8. Tropical Cyclone

Position and

Intensity

X X X X Scatterometry, GNSS-R, SAR

B. Vertical

Temperature and

Moisture Profiles

X

GEO/LEO IR

sounding, GNSS-RO

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4. Today's SBEM Family of Systems Overview

• Geostationary

– NOAA

– DoD

– Europe

– Japan

– Others

• LEO Sun-Synchronous

– NOAA

– DoD

– Europe

– Others

• World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Coordinating Group for Meteorological Satellites (CGMS)

• SBEM data pathways to DoD Weather Users

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4. Today's SBEM Family of Systems Geostationary

• NOAA: Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES)

– GOES-18 (2022) is current operational GOES-West at 137°W

– GOES-16 (2016) is current operational GOES-East at 75°W; to be replaced by GOES-19 later in 2024

– GOES-14 (2009) and GOES-17 (2018) are on-orbit spares at 105°W

– Vis/IR imagery: Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI); 0.5-2 km resolution; 16 bands

– Geostationary Lightning Mapper

– Space Weather Suite: Space Environment In-Situ Suite (SEISS), Solar UV Imager (SUVI), EUV/X-ray Irradiance sensors, Magnetometer

– Future: NOAA GeoXO program; operational by ~2032

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4. Today's SBEM Family of Systems Geostationary

• DoD: EO/IR Weather Satellite-Geostationary (EWS-G2)

– Formerly GOES-15 (2010); transferred to DoD (2023) and now operates at 63°E

– Vis/IR Imagery: GOES Imager; 1-4 km resolution; 5 bands

– Future: TBD; possibly GOES-14 or -17

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4. Today's SBEM Family of Systems Geostationary

• European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT)

– METEOSAT Prime Service: METEOSAT-10 (2012) at 0°E; to be replaced by MTG-I1 (2022) after calibration/validation complete

– METEOSAT Rapid Scan Service: METEOSAT-11 (2015) at 10°E

– METEOSAT Indian Ocean Service: METEOSAT-9 (2005) at 46°E

– Vis/IR Imagery: Spinning Enhanced Visible IR Imager (SEVIRI); 2-5 km resolution; 12 bands

– Future: METEOSAT Third Generation (MTG) series of imaging and sounding satellites replacing METEOSAT Second

Generation (MSG) series now through mid-2030s

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4. Today's SBEM Family of Systems Geostationary

• Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA)

– Himawari-9 (2016) at 141°E

– Himawari-8 (2014) spare at 141°E

– Vis/IR Imagery: Advanced Himawari Imager (AHI);

0.5-2 km resolution; 16 bands

– Future: Himawari-10 planned for 2028

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4. Today's SBEM Family of Systems Geostationary

• Other GEO capabilities

– 2016 NDAA forbids DoD from relying on Chinese (Feng-Yun 4A and 4B at 105°E) or Russian (Electro-L N2 at

14°W, N3 at 76°E, and N4 at 166°E) SBEM assets

– India: Vis/IR imagery from Indian National Satellite (INSAT)-3D (2013) at 82°E, INSAT-3DR (2016) at 74°E, and INSAT-3DS (2024) at 82°E

– South Korea: Vis/IR imagery from Geostationary Korea Multipurpose Satellite 2A (GK2A; 2018) at 128°E

(GK2A currently received by Mark IV-B tactical satellite system but not directly at DoD weather centers)

UNCLASSIFIED

4. Today's SBEM Family of Systems LEO Sun-Synchronous

• NOAA: Afternoon Orbit Plane

– Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS)

• Suomi NPOESS Preparatory Project (S-NPP; 1325 LTAN)

• NOAA 20 (2017; 1325 LTAN)

• NOAA 21 (2022; 1330 LTAN)

– Vis/IR Imagery: Visible and IR Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS), 3000 km cross-track swath, 375-750 m resolution, 22 bands

– Microwave Sounder: Advanced Technology Microwave Sounder (ATMS), 2200 km cross-track swath, 16-75 km resolution, 22 channels

– Others: Cross-track IR Sounder (CrIS), Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite (OMPS), Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES)

– Future:

• JPSS-4 (will become NOAA 22 in 2027), JPSS-3 (will become NOAA 23 in 2032)

• QuickSounder: ATMS (2026; intended to fill MW sounding gap in 1730 LTAN orbit plane)

• Near Earth Observational Network (NEON), from mid-2030s

UNCLASSIFIED

4. Today's SBEM Family of Systems LEO Sun-Synchronous

• DoD: Early-Morning Orbit Plane

– Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP)

• DMSP F16 (2003; 1820 LTAN)

• DMSP F17 (2006; 1835 LTAN)

• DMSP F18 (2009; 1630 LTAN)

– Vis/IR Imagery: Operational Linescan System (OLS), 3000 km cross-track swath, 0.5 km resolution, 3 bands

– Passive Microwave Imagery and Sounding Radiances:

Special Sensor Microwave Imager/Sounder (SSMIS), 1700 km conical swath, 25-75 km resolution, 8 polarized imaging channels, 16 sounding channels

– Space Weather Suite: Ionospheric plasma sensor (SSIES), Precipitating electron and Ion Spectrometer (SSJ), Magnetometer (SSM), UV Limb Imager (SSULI), UV Spectrographic Imager (SSUSI)

– Future:

• Weather System Follow-on Microwave (WSF-M1; 2024): Conical scanning 6-channel polarimetric microwave imager

• EO/IR Weather System (EWS; 2025): Vis/IR imager with 16 bands

• WSF-M2 (2028)

UNCLASSIFIED

4. Today's SBEM Family of Systems LEO Sun-Synchronous

• EUMETSAT: Mid-Morning Orbit Plane

– Meteorological Operational Satellite (METOP) Program

• METOP-B (2012; 2131 LTAN)

• METOP-C (2018; 2131 LTAN)

– Vis/IR Imagery: Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR/3), 2900 km cross-track swath, 1.1 km resolution, 6 bands

– Passive Sounding Radiances:

• Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU-A), 2200 km cross-track swath, 48 km resolution, 15 channels

• Microwave Humidity Sounder (MHS), 2200 km cross-track swath, 16 km resolution, 5 channels

– Scatterometer: Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT), Two 550-km along-track swaths separated by 700 km gap, 25 km resolution

– Others: GNSS Receiver for Atmospheric Sounding (GRAS), IR Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI), Medium Energy Proton Detector (SEM/MEPED), Total Energy Detector (SEM/TED)

– Future:

• METOP Second Generation A (Vis/IR and MW sounder) and B (MW imager, radar, scatterometer), 2025-late 2030s

• EPS Sterna: Microsatellite MW sounder constellation in various LEO planes (2029-2042)

UNCLASSIFIED

4. Today's SBEM Family of Systems LEO Sun-Synchronous

• Other LEO capabilities

– 2016 NDAA forbids DoD from relying on Chinese (Feng Yun-3C, -3D, -3E, -3F, -3G) or Russian (Meteor-M N2, N2-2, N2-3) SBEM assets

– NASA Earth Observing System (EOS)

• Terra (1999; 2230 LTAN): Moderate Resolution Imaging

Spectroradiometer (MODIS), 2200 km cross-track swath, 250-1000 m resolution, 36 bands

• Aqua (2002; 1330 LTAN): MODIS

– NASA and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)

• Global Precipitation Measurement Mission (GPM) Core Observatory, 407 km, 67° inclination

– GPM Microwave Imager (GMI), 850 km conical-scan swath, 4-32 km resolution, 12 channels

– Dual-frequency Precipitation Radar (DPR)

UNCLASSIFIED

4. Today's SBEM Family of Systems NOAA represents US civil and military interests at the World Meteorological Organization

(WMO) Coordinating Group for Meteorological Satellites (CGMS) https://cgms-info.org/ https://cgms-info.org/

UNCLASSIFIED

4. Today's SBEM Family of Systems Current SBEM FoS Data Flow Paths to DoD Weather Users

FNMOC 557 WW NESDIS

GOES-E

(75ºW)

GOES-W

(137ºW)

METEOSAT

Prime

(0º/10ºE)

METEOSAT

Indian

Ocean

(46ºE)

Himawari

(141ºE) Geo

Kompsat

(128ºE)

EWS-G

(63ºE)

Remote Ground

Station (Australia)

Mark IV-B

(Hawaii) EUMETSAT Mark IV-B

(Okinawa)

• GEO Data Flow to DoD Weather Centers

N-WAVENIPRNET Commercial Comm

UNCLASSIFIED

4. Today's SBEM Family of Systems Current SBEM FoS Data Flow Paths to DoD Weather Users

FNMOC 557 WW NESDIS EUMETSAT

• LEO Data Flow to DoD Weather Centers

NOAA & EUMETSAT

Ground Stations

(Fairbanks, Svalbard, McMurdo)

METOP

(2130 LTAN)

JPSS

(1330 LTAN) DMSP

(1730 LTAN)

EUMETSAT Ground Station

Svalbard, Norway

DoD SCN Sites &

McMurdo Station

COSMIC-2

(GNSS-RO)

Taiwan Space

Agency and

Mark IV-B Sites

UCAR

Commercial Comm N-WAVE

UNCLASSIFIED

4. Today's SBEM Family of Systems Current SBEM FoS Data Flow Paths to DoD Weather Users

GOES-E

(75ºW)

GOES-W

(137ºW)

METEOSAT

Prime

(0º/10ºE)

METEOSAT

Indian

Ocean

(46ºE)

Himawari

(141ºE) Geo

Kompsat

(128ºE)

EWS-G

(63ºE)

Air Force

Mark IV-B Sites

• GEO and LEO Direct Broadcast to DoD Deployed Users

Navy

FMQ-17 Sites

METOP

(2130 LTAN)

JPSS

(1330 LTAN) DMSP

(1730 LTAN)

Navy

SMQ-11s

Mark IV-B Forecaster App or Web interface

NIPRNET/

SIPRNET/

JWICS

Direct readout terminals (DRTs) can receive GEO and LEO direct broadcast signals when within line of sight of a satellite.

G E

O L

E O

UNCLASSIFIED

Conclusion

• SBEM itself does not accomplish the weather mission; it is a valuable observational component the enables automated and human forecast products, which must be mission-tailored and integrated into operational planning and execution.

• Today's SBEM sensors exploit very specific spectral bands, at appropriate spatial resolutions for resolving meteorological features, and with fields of view and refresh rates appropriate to regional-, theater-, and hemispheric-scale awareness.

• The DoD relies on a diverse Family of Systems comprising GEO and LEO satellites operated by DoD, NOAA, and international partners.

Questions?