Publication 325 092024

KEEPING CONSUMERS SAFE

Public Playground Safety Handbook

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Scope

1.2 Intended Audience

1.3 What is a Public Playground?

1.4 Public Playground Safety Voluntary Standards and CPSC Handbook History

1.4.1 ASTM playground standards

1.4.2 Other ASTM standards

1.5 Significant Revisions from 2010 to Present

1.5.1 Introduction

1.5.2 Equipment guidelines

1.5.3 Surfacing guidelines

1.5.4 General guidelines

1.5.5 Other revisions

1.6 Background

1.7 Playground Injuries

1.8 Definitions

2. GENERAL PLAYGROUND CONSIDERATIONS

2.1 Selecting a Site

2.1.1 Shading considerations

2.1.2 Fencing

2.2 Playground Layout

2.2.1 Accessibility

2.2.2 Age separation

2.2.3 Age group

2.2.4 Conflicting activities

2.2.5 Sight lines

2.2.6 Signage and/or labeling

2.2.7 Supervision

2.3 Selecting Equipment

2.3.1 Equipment not recommended

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2.4 Surfacing

2.4.1 Equipment not covered by protective surfacing recommendations

2.4.2 Selecting a surfacing material

2.5 Equipment Materials

2.5.1 Durability and finish

2.5.2 Hardware

2.5.3 Metals

2.5.4 Paints and finishes

2.5.5 Wood

2.6 Assembly and Installation

3. PLAYGROUND HAZARDS

3.1 Crush and Shearing Points

3.2 Entanglement and Impalement

3.2.1 Strings, straps, and ropes

3.2.2 Protrusions

3.3 Entrapment

3.3.1 Head entrapment

3.3.2 Partially bound openings and angles

3.4 Sharp Points, Corners, and Edges

3.5 Suspended Hazards

3.6 Tripping Hazards

3.7 Used Tires

3.8 Overhead Obstructions

4. MAINTAINING A PLAYGROUND

4.1 Maintenance Inspections

4.2 Repairs

4.3 Maintaining Loose-Fill Surfacing

4.4 Recordkeeping

5. PARTS OF THE PLAYGROUND

5.1 Platforms, Guardrails and Protective Barriers

5.1.1 Platforms

5.1.2 Stepped platforms

5.1.3 Guardrails and protective barriers

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5.2 Access Methods to Play Equipment

5.2.1 Ramps, stairways, rung ladders, and step ladders

5.2.2 Rungs and other hand gripping components

5.2.3 Handrails

5.2.4 Transition from access to platform

5.3 Major Types of Playground Equipment

5.3.1 Balance beams

5.3.2 Climbing and upper body equipment

5.3.3 Log rolls

5.3.4 Merry-go-rounds and other spinning equipment

5.3.5 Seesaws

5.3.6 Slides

5.3.7 Spring rockers

5.3.8 Swings

5.3.9 Fall height and use zones for composite structure

5.3.10 Fall height and use zones not specified elsewhere

APPENDIX A: SUGGESTED GENERAL MAINTENANCE CHECKLISTS

APPENDIX B: PLAYGROUND TESTING

B.1 Templates, Gauges, and Testing Tools

B.2 Test Methods

B.2.1 Determining whether a projection is a protrusion

B.2.2 Projections on suspended members of swing assemblies

B.2.3 Projections on slides

B.2.4 Entrapment

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Scope

This handbook presents safety information and guidelines from the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) for public playground equipment. Publication of this handbook is expected to promote greater safety awareness among those who purchase, install, and maintain public playground equipment. Because many factors may affect playground safety, the CPSC believes that guidelines, rather than a mandatory rule, are appropriate. These guidelines are not requirements, or the sole method to minimize injuries associated with playground equipment. However, the Commission believes that the recommendations in this handbook along with the technical information in the ASTM standards for public playgrounds will contribute to greater playground safety.

Some states and local jurisdictions may require compliance with this handbook and/or ASTM voluntary standards. Additionally, risk managers, insurance companies, or others may require compliance at a particular site; check with state/local jurisdictions and insurance companies for specific requirements.

1.2 Intended Audience

This handbook is intended for use by childcare personnel, school officials, parks and recreation personnel, equipment purchasers and installers, playground designers, and any other members of the general public (e.g., parents and school groups) concerned with public playground safety and interested in evaluating their respective playgrounds. Due to the wide range of possible users, some information provided may be more appropriate for certain users than others. The voluntary standards listed in 1.4.1 contain more technical requirements than this handbook and are primarily intended for use by equipment designers and manufacturers, architects, and any others requiring more technical information.

1.3 What is a Public Playground?

“Public” playground equipment refers to equipment for use by children ages 6 months through 12 years in the playground areas of (but not limited to):

• Commercial (non-residential) childcare facilities

• Institutions

• Multiple family dwellings, such as apartment and condominium buildings

• Parks, such as city, state, and community-maintained parks

• Restaurants with outdoor play areas (not indoor soft contained play equipment as defined in Section 1.8)

• Resorts and recreational developments

In recent years, it is estimated that there were almost 200,000 injuries annually on playground equipment across the country that required emergency room treatment. By following the recommended guidelines in this handbook, you and your community can create a safer playground environment for all children and contribute to the reduction of playground-related deaths and injuries.

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• Schools

• Other areas of public use

These guidelines are not intended for amusement park equipment, sports or fitness equipment normally intended for users over the age of 12 years, soft contained play equipment, constant air inflatable play devices, art and museum sculptures (not otherwise designed, intended and installed as playground equipment), equipment found in water play facilities, or home playground equipment.

Equipment components intended solely for children with disabilities and modified to accommodate such users also are not covered by these guidelines. Childcare facilities, especially indoor, should refer to ASTM F2373 — Standard Consumer Safety Performance Specification for Public Use Play Equipment for Children 6 Months Through 23 Months, for more guidance on areas unique to their facilities.

1.4 Public Playground Safety Voluntary Standards and CPSC

Handbook History

• 1981 – First CPSC Handbook for Public Playground Safety was published, a two volume set.

• 1991 – Standard Specification for Impact Attenuation of Surface Systems Under and Around Playground Equipment, ASTM F1292, was first published.

• 1991 – Two-volume set was replaced by a single volume handbook, which contained recommendations based on a COMSIS Corporation report to the CPSC (Development of Human Factors Criteria for Playground Equipment Safety).

• 1993 – First version of voluntary standard for public playground equipment, ASTM F1487 — Standard Consumer Safety Performance Specification for Playground Equipment for Public Use, was published (revisions occur every 3 to 4 years).

• 1994 – Minor revisions to the Handbook.

• 1997 – Handbook was updated based on (1) staff review of ASTM F1487, (2) playground safety roundtable meeting held October 1996, and (3) public comment received to a May 1997 CPSC staff request.

• 2005 – First version of voluntary standard for playground equipment intended for children under two years old, ASTM F2373 — Standard Consumer Safety Performance Specification for Public Use Play Equipment for Children 6 Months Through 23 Months, was published.

• 2008 – Handbook was updated based on comments received from members of the ASTM F15 Playground Committees in response to a CPSC staff request for suggested revisions.

• 2010 – Handbook was updated based on comments received from the public, including members of the ASTM F15 Playground Committees and the International Play Equipment Manufacturers Association (IPEMA).

1.4.1 ASTM playground standards

Below is a list of ASTM technical performance standards that relate to playgrounds. ASTM standards are available for purchase online at https://www.astm.org and a free, read-only copy of some editions of standards are available for viewing at https://www.astm.org/readinglibrary.

• F1487 Standard Consumer Safety Performance Specification for Playground Equipment for Public Use.

• F2373 Standard Consumer Safety Performance Specification for Public Use Play Equipment for Children 6 Months through 23 Months.

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• F1292 Standard Specification for Impact Attenuation of Surfacing Materials Within the Use Zone of Playground Equipment.

• F2075 Standard Specification for Engineered Wood Fiber for Use as a Playground Safety Surface Under and Around Playground Equipment.

• F2223 Standard Guide for ASTM Standards on Playground Surfacing.

• F2479 Standard Guide for Specification, Purchase, Installation and Maintenance of Poured-In-Place Playground Surfacing.

• F1951 Standard Specification for Determination of Accessibility of Surface Systems Under and Around Playground Equipment.

• F1816 Standard Safety Specification for Drawstrings on Children’s Upper Outerwear.

• F2049 Standard Safety Performance Specification for Fences/Barriers for Public, Commercial, and Multi-Family Residential Use Outdoor Play Areas.

• F1148 Standard Consumer Safety Performance Specification for Home Playground Equipment.

• F1918 Standard Safety Performance Specification for Soft Contained Play Equipment.

• F3012 Standard Specification for Loose-Fill Rubber for Use as a Playground Safety Surface under and around Playground Equipment.

• F3313 Standard Test Method for Determining Impact Attenuation of Playground Surfaces Within the Use Zone of Playground Equipment as Tested in the Field.

1.4.2 Other ASTM standards

• F900 Standard Specification for Industrial and Commercial Swing Gates.

• F1184 Standard Specification for Industrial and Commercial Horizontal Slide Gates.

• F2200 Standard Specification for Automated Vehicular Gate Construction.

1.5 Significant Revisions from 2010 to Present

1.5.1 Introduction

• Updated list of ASTM playground standards with new or revised standards since 2010

• Updated playground injury data

1.5.2 Equipment guidelines

• Added more references to technical specifications and testing in ASTM F1487

• Incorporated recommendations for closer harmonization with ASTM F1487

• Updated recommendations on merry-go-rounds and other spinning equipment

1.5.3 Surfacing guidelines

• Updated surfacing discussion based on new and updated ASTM surfacing standards

• Clarification of loose fill surfacing guidelines, including addressing chemical hazards

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1.5.4 General guidelines

• Updated recommendations for fencing and gates

• Updated recommendations on signage and labeling

• Updated recommendations on supervision

• Added more recommendations on addressing strangulation hazards

1.5.5 Other revisions

• Updated figures and editorial changes to make the Handbook easier to understand and use

1.6 Background

The safety of each individual piece of playground equipment as well as the layout of the entire play area should be considered when designing or evaluating a playground for safety. Since falls are a very common playground hazard pattern, the installation and maintenance of protective surfacing under and around all equipment is crucial to protect children from severe head injuries.

Because all playgrounds present some challenge and because children can be expected to use equipment in unintended and unanticipated ways, adult supervision is highly recommended. The handbook provides some recommendations on supervisory practices that adults should follow.

Appropriate equipment design, layout, and maintenance, as discussed in this handbook, are also essential for increasing public playground safety.

A playground should allow children to develop gradually and test their skills by providing a series of graduated challenges. The challenges presented should be appropriate for age-related abilities and should be ones that children can perceive and choose to undertake. Toddlers, preschool- and school-age children differ dramatically, not only in physical size and ability, but also in their intellectual and social skills. Therefore, age-appropriate playground designs should accommodate these differences with regard to the type, scale, and the layout of equipment. Recommendations throughout this handbook address the different needs of toddlers, preschool-age, and school-age children; “toddlers” refers to children ages 6 months through 23 months of age, “preschool-age” refers to children 2 through 5 years, and “school-age” refers to children 5 through 12 years. The overlap between these groups is anticipated in terms of playground equipment use and provides for a margin of safety.

Playground designers, installers and operators should be aware that the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) is a comprehensive civil rights law which prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability. Titles II and III of the ADA require, among other things, that newly constructed and altered state and local government facilities, places of public accommodation, and commercial facilities be readily accessible to and usable by individuals with disabilities. Recreation facilities, including play areas, are among the types of facilities covered by titles II and III of the ADA.

The Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board—also referred to as the “Access Board”— is an independent federal agency that develops and maintains the Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines, or ADAAG. The ADAAG have been in place since July 1990 and include a supplement for play areas.

In 2010, the Access Board completed work on revisions to the ADA Standards for Accessible Design (“ADA Standards”) which include requirements for all newly constructed and altered play areas covered by the ADA. In September 2010, the Department of Justice adopted these revised ADA

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Standards, known as the “2010 ADA Standards,”1 along with the Guidance on the 2010 Standards.2 The revised final rules went into effect on March 15, 2011. Compliance with the 2010 ADA Standards was required as of March 15, 2012. Areas covered by the Architectural Barriers Act (ABA) are also subject to these standards.

Copies of the play area accessibility guidelines and further technical assistance can be obtained from the U.S. Access Board, 1331 F Street, NW, Suite 1000, Washington, DC 20004-1111; 202-272-0080, ta@ access-board.gov, www.access-board.gov.

1.7 Playground Injuries

The U. S. Consumer Product Safety Commission has long recognized the potential hazards that exist with the use of playground equipment, with an average of over 190,000 estimated emergency room-treated injuries annually from 2021-2023.3 Excluding incidents related to a recalled product,4 the most recent study of 1,775 playground equipment-related incidents reported to CPSC from 2009-2014 indicated that equipment-related hazards, such as breakage, tip over, design, and assembly, were the most common hazard pattern (38% of incidents) followed by falls (29%).5 Other common hazard patterns involved entrapment and colliding into other children or stationary equipment. Playground-related deaths reported to the Commission involved entanglement of ropes, leashes, bike helmets, or clothing with a drawstring;6 falls; and impact from equipment tip over or structural failure.

The recommendations in this handbook have been developed to address the hazards that resulted in playground-related injuries and deaths. The recommendations include those that address:

• The potential for falls from and impact with equipment

• The need for shock-absorbing (i.e., impact attenuating) protective surfacing under and around equipment

• Openings with the potential for head entrapment

• Entanglement of ropes, helmets with straps, leashes, or clothing with a drawstring

• The scale of equipment and other design features related to user age and layout of equipment on a playground

• Installation and maintenance procedures

• General hazards presented by protrusions, sharp edges, and crush or shear points

1.8 Definitions

• Barrier — An enclosing device around an elevated platform that is intended to prevent both inadvertent and deliberate attempts to pass through the device.

• Composite Structure — Two or more play structures attached or functionally linked, to create one integral unit that provides more than one play activity.

1 Available at: https://www.ada.gov/law-and-regs/design-standards/2010-stds/

2 Available at: https://www.ada.gov/law-and-regs/design-standards/standards-guidance/

3 Based on National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) data for all playground equipment-reported injuries.

4 There were 1,239 reports (out of 3,014 total incidents) associated with a single recalled product.

5 Hanway, Stephen and Lily Motabar. Injuries and Investigated Deaths Associated with Playground Equipment, 2009–2014. U.S.

Consumer Product Safety Commission. Bethesda, MD. April 2017. Available at: https://www.cpsc.gov/content/Injuries-and- Investigated-Deaths-Associated-with-Playground-Equipment-2009-to-2014

6 Drawstrings on children’s clothing are prohibited per 16 C.F.R. § 1120.3.

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• Critical Height — The fall height below which a life-threatening head injury would not be expected to occur.

• Designated Play Surface — Any elevated surface for standing, walking, crawling, sitting or climbing, or a flat surface greater than 2 inches wide by 2 inches long having an angle less than 30° from horizontal.

• Embankment Slide — A slide that follows the contour of the ground and at no point is the bottom of the chute greater than 12 inches above the surrounding ground.

• Entanglement — A condition in which the user’s clothes or something around the user’s neck becomes caught or entwined on a component of playground equipment.

• Entrapment — Any condition that impedes withdrawal of a body or body part that has penetrated an opening.

• Fall Height — The vertical distance between the highest designated play surface on a piece of equipment and the protective surfacing beneath it.

• Footing — A means for anchoring playground equipment to the ground.

• Full Bucket Seat Swing — A swing generally appropriate for children under 4 years of age that provides support on all sides and between the legs of the occupant and cannot be entered or exited without adult assistance.

• Functionally-Linked Play Structure — A play structure that acts as a single unit in its physical form or sense of function as continuous play even if the components are not physically attached.

• Geotextile (filter) Cloth — A fabric that retains its relative structure during handling, placement, and long-term service to enhance water movement, retard soil movement, and to add reinforcement and separation between the soil and the surfacing and/or sub-base.

• Guardrail — An enclosing device around an elevated platform that is intended to prevent inadvertent falls from the elevated surface.

• Infill — Material(s) used in a protective barrier or between decks to prevent a user from passing through the barrier (e.g., vertical bars, lattice, solid panel, etc.).

• Loose-Fill Surfacing Material — A material used for protective surfacing in the use zone that consists of loose particles such as sand, pea gravel, engineered wood fibers, or rubber mulch.

• Preschool-Age Children — Children 2 years of age through 5 years of age.

• Projection — Anything that extends outward from a surface of the playground equipment and must be tested to determine whether it is a protrusion or entanglement hazard, or both.

• Protective Barrier — See Barrier.

• Protective Surfacing — Shock-absorbing (i.e., impact attenuating) surfacing material in the use zone that conforms to the recommendations in §2.4 of this handbook.

• Protrusion — A projection which, when tested, is found to be a hazard having the potential to cause bodily injury to a user who impacts it.

• Public Use Playground Equipment — Play structures for use in play areas of schools, parks, child-care facilities, institutions, multiple-family dwellings, private resorts and recreation developments, restaurants, and other areas of public use.

• Roller Slide — A slide that has a chute consisting of a series of individual rollers over which the user travels.

• School-Age Children — Children 5 years of age through 12 years of age.

• Slide Chute — The inclined sliding surface of a slide.

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• Soft Contained Play Equipment — Play structures made up of one or more components where the user enters a fully enclosed play environment that utilizes pliable material(s) (for example, plastic, netting, or fabric). This type of equipment is frequently found inside restaurants.

• Stationary Play Equipment — Any play structure that has a fixed base and does not move.

• Supervisor — Any person tasked with watching children on a playground. Supervisors may be paid professionals (e.g., childcare, elementary school or park and recreation personnel), paid seasonal workers (e.g., college or high school students), volunteers (e.g., PTA members), or unpaid caregivers (e.g., parents) of the children playing in the playground.

• Toddlers — Children 6 months through 23 months of age.

• Tube Slide — A slide in which the chute consists of a totally enclosed tube or tunnel.

• Unitary Surfacing Material — A manufactured material used for protective surfacing in the use zone that may be rubber tiles, mats, or a combination of energy absorbing materials held in place by a binder that may be poured in place at the playground site and cures to form a unitary shock-absorbing surface.

• Upper Body Equipment — Equipment designed to support a child by the hands only (e.g., horizontal ladder, overhead swinging rings).

• Use Zone — The surface under and around a piece of equipment onto which a child falling from or exiting from the equipment would be expected to land. These areas are also designated for unrestricted circulation around the equipment.

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2. GENERAL PLAYGROUND CONSIDERATIONS

2.1 Selecting a Site

The following factors are important when selecting a site for a new playground:

Site Factor Questions to Ask If yes, then…Mitigation

Travel patterns of children to and from the playground

Are there hazards in the way? Clear hazards.

Nearby accessible hazards such as roads with traffic, lakes, ponds, streams, drop-offs/cliffs, etc.

Could a child inadvertently run into a nearby hazard?

Could younger children easily wander off toward the hazard?

Provide a method to contain children within the playground. For example, a dense hedge or a fence. The method should allow for observation by supervisors. Section 2.1.2 provides safety recommendations on fences.

If fences or barriers are used, they should conform to local building codes and/or ASTM F2049. If gates are used, they should conform to local building codes and/or ASTM F900, ASTM F1184, or ASTM F2200, as applicable to the type of gate used.

Sun exposure Is sun exposure sufficient to heat exposed playground equipment, such as plastic or bare metal slides, platforms, steps?

Can exposed playground surfacing become hot enough to burn children?

Plastic and metal playground equipment and playground surfacing may cause burns, even in mild weather, when exposed to direct sunlight. Bare metal slides, platforms, and steps should be shaded or located out of direct sun. Consider providing shade for plastic play equipment whenever possible.

Provide warnings that equipment and surfacing exposed to intense sun can burn.

Will children be exposed to the sun during the most intense part of the day?

Consider shading the playground or providing shaded areas nearby.

Slope and drainage Will loose-fill materials wash away during periods of heavy rain?

Is it likely that the playground will retain water and cause the protective surfacing, particularly synthetic surfacing, to fail prematurely or develop mold?

Consider proper drainage regrading to prevent washouts.

Ensure a drainage system is adequate for the removal of water in a timely manner.

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2.1.1 Shading considerations

According to the American Academy of Dermatology, research indicates that one in five Americans will develop some form of skin cancer during their lifetime, and five or more sunburns double the risk of developing skin cancer. Additionally, direct sunlight can heat playground equipment and playground surfacing enough to cause burns, even in mild weather.7 Utilizing existing shade (e.g., trees), designing play structures as a means for providing shading (e.g., elevated platforms with shaded space below), or creating more shade (e.g., man-made structures) are potential ways to design a playground to help protect children’s skin from the sun. When trees are used for shade, additional maintenance issues arise, such as the need for cleaning up debris and trimming limbs.

2.1.2 Fencing

If fences are used to protect children on playgrounds from nearby hazards such as roads with traffic, lakes, ponds, streams, or cliffs, the fences should conform to local building codes and/or ASTM F2049. Fences do not replace adult supervision. While fences should provide sufficient visibility for supervision from the outside, fences should also be designed to ensure that: a) they do not provide footholds and handholds for children to climb up, b) spaces do not allow children to pass through or create entrapment hazards, and c) they have no protrusion hazards.

The following recommendations are based on anthropometric and developmental characteristics of children under twelve.

Fence Height - The top of the fence should be a minimum of 4 feet above grade, measured on the side of the fence that faces away from the playground, to discourage climbing.

Ground clearance - The maximum vertical clearance between grade and the bottom of the fence should be no more than 4 inches, measured on both sides of the fence, to prevent toys and children from going underneath.

For a fence composed of horizontal and vertical members:

• If the distance between the tops of the horizontal members is less than 45 inches, the horizontal members should be located on the side opposite the playground to prevent children using them as a ladder, and the spacing between the vertical members should not exceed 1-3⁄4 inches to prevent footholds.

• If the distance between the tops of the horizontal members is 45 inches or more, the spacing between the vertical members should not exceed 4 inches to prevent a child from passing between members.

• Where there are decorative cutouts, the spacing within the cutouts should not exceed 1-3⁄4 inches.

7 CPSC publication 3200 provides additional information on burn safety awareness on playgrounds. See: https://www.cpsc.

gov/s3fs-public/3200.pdf

Fence Dimensions for Horizontal and Vertical Members

If h<45” then w should not exceed 1-3/4”

If h≥45” then w should not exceed 4” h (top to top of each horizontal member) min. 48” grade max. 4” w

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Where the fence is composed of diagonal members, such as in a lattice fence, any opening created by the diagonal members should be a maximum of 1-3⁄4 inches, measured in its largest direction.

For a chain link fence:

The mesh opening should be a nominal 1-1⁄4 inches, measured between the parallel sides of the mesh, and a maximum of 1-3⁄4 inches, measured horizontally between the corners of the installed mesh.

Diagonal bracing members extending from one corner to the opposite corner, creating a ladder effect on all styles of fences and gates, should only be used where spacing of vertical members does not exceed 1-3⁄4 inches.

Solid barriers that do not have openings, such as masonry or stone walls, should not have any indentations deeper than 0.375 inches to prevent finger entrapment and use as footholds.

Fences should have no protrusion hazards located less than 54 inches above grade. Protrusion hazards are discussed further in §3.2.

2.2 Playground Layout

There are several key factors to keep in mind when laying out a playground:

• Accessibility

• Age separation

• Conflicting activities

• Sight lines

• Signage and/or labeling

• Supervision

2.2.1 Accessibility

Special consideration should be given to providing accessible surfaces and routes in a play area that meets ASTM F1951 Standard Specification for Determination of Accessibility of Surface Systems Under and Around Playground Equipment, which also aligns with ADA Standards. Equipment selection and location along with the type of protective surfacing are key components to ensuring the opportunity for children with disabilities to play on the playground.

2.2.2 Age separation

For playgrounds intended to serve children of all ages, the layout of pathways and the landscaping of the playground should show the distinct areas for the different age groups. The areas should be separated at least by a buffer zone, which could be an area with shrubs or benches. This separation and buffer zone will reduce the chance of injury from older, more active children running through areas filled with younger children with generally slower movement and reaction times.

2.2.3 Age group

In areas where access to the playground is unlimited or enforced only by signage, the playground designer should recognize that since child development is fluid, parents and caregivers may select a playground slightly above or slightly below their child’s abilities, especially for children at or near a cut-off age (e.g., 2-years old and 5-years old). This could be for ease of supervising multiple

11Public Playground Safety Handbook | Publication 325 | July 2025 | cpsc.gov children, misperceptions about the hazards a playground may pose to children of a different age, advanced development of a child, or other reasons. For this reason, there is an overlap at age 5.

Developmentally, a similar overlap also exists around age 2; however, due to the differences in ASTM standards and entrapment testing tools, this overlap is not reflected in the handbook. Playgrounds used primarily by children under the supervision of paid, trained professionals (e.g., child-care centers and schools) may wish to consider separating playgrounds by the facility’s age groupings. For example, a child-care facility may wish to limit a playground to toddlers under 2 exclusively and can draw information from this guideline and ASTM F2373. A school, on the other hand, may have no children under 4 attending, and can likewise plan appropriately. Those who inspect playgrounds should use the intended age group of the playground.

2.2.4 Conflicting activities

The play area should be organized into different sections to prevent injuries caused by conflicting activities and children running between activities. Active, physical activities should be separate from more passive or quiet activities. Areas for playground equipment, open fields, and sand boxes should be located in different sections of the playground. In addition, popular, heavy-use pieces of equipment or activities should be dispersed to avoid crowding in any one area.

Different types of equipment have different use zones that must be maintained. The following are general recommendations for locating equipment within the playground site. Specific use zones for equipment are given in §5.3.

• Moving equipment, such as swings and merry-go-rounds, should be located toward a corner, side, or edge of the play area while ensuring that the appropriate use zones around the equipment are maintained.

• Slide exits should be located in an uncongested area of the playground.

• Composite play structures have become increasingly popular on public playgrounds. Adjacent components on composite structures should be complementary. For example, an access component should not be located in a slide exit zone.

2.2.5 Sight lines

Playgrounds that are designed, installed, and maintained in accordance with safety guidelines and standards can still present hazards to children. Playgrounds should be laid out to allow parents or caregivers to keep track of children as they move throughout the playground environment. Visual barriers should be minimized as much as possible. For example, in a park situation, playground equipment should be as visible as possible from park benches. In playgrounds with areas for different ages, the older children’s area should be visible from the younger children’s area to ensure that caregivers of multiple children can see older children while they are engaged in interactive play with younger ones.

2.2.6 Signage and/or labeling

Signs and/or labels posted in the playground area or on the equipment should give some guidance to supervisors as to the age appropriateness of the equipment.

Signs and/or labels should be placed so they:

• Are readily visible to the intended viewer, and

• Alert the viewer to the potential hazard in time to take appropriate action.

Refer to ASTM F1487 for more information on signs and labels.

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2.2.7 Supervision

The quality of the supervision depends on the quality of the supervisor’s knowledge of safe play behavior. Playground designers should be aware of the type of supervision most likely for their given playground.

Depending on the location and nature of the playground, the supervisors may be paid professionals (e.g., childcare, elementary school or park and recreation personnel), paid seasonal workers (e.g., college or high school students), volunteers (e.g., PTA members), or unpaid caregivers (e.g., parents) of the children playing in the playground.

Parents and playground supervisors should be aware that not all playground equipment is appropriate for all children who may use the playground. Supervisors should look for posted signs and labels indicating the appropriate age of the users and direct children to equipment appropriate for their age. Supervisors may also use the information in Table 1 to determine the suitability of the equipment for the children they are supervising. Toddlers and preschool-age children require more attentive supervision than older children; however, one should not rely on supervision alone to prevent injuries.

Supervisors should understand the basics of playground safety such as:

• Checking for broken equipment and making sure children don’t play on it.

• Being aware of strangulation hazards for children.

• Do not let children wear helmets or clothing with drawstrings, straps, or cords while playing with the equipment.

• Do not let children play with pet leashes, jump ropes, cables, string, or corded items near or on the equipment.

• Checking for and removing unsafe modifications, especially ropes tied to equipment, before letting children play.

• Checking for properly maintained protective surfacing.

• Checking whether equipment and surfacing feels hot to the touch before allowing children to interact with it.

• Making sure children are wearing footwear to prevent burns on hot surfacing, cuts, or punctures.

• Watching and stopping dangerous horseplay, such as children throwing protective surfacing materials, jumping from heights, etc.

• Watching for and stopping children from wandering away from the play area.

• Avoiding sliding with a child in tandem or on an adult’s lap, which can cause foot or leg fractures.

• Other common playground hazards are discussed in Section 3.

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Table 1. Examples of Age-Appropriate Equipment

Toddler — Ages 6-23 months

Preschool — Ages 2-5 years

Grade School — Ages 5-12 years

• Climbing equipment under 32” high

• Ramps

• Single file step ladders

• Slides*

• Spiral slides less than 360°

• Spring rockers

• Stairways

• Swings with full bucket seats

• Certain climbers**

• Horizontal ladders less than or equal to 60” high for ages 4 and 5

• Merry-go-rounds/spinners

• Ramps

• Rung ladders

• Single file step ladders

• Slides*

• Spiral slides up to 360°

• Spring rockers

• Stairways

• Swings — belt, full bucket seats (2-4 years) & rotating tire

• Arch climbers

• Chain or cable walks

• Free standing climbers with flexible parts

• Fulcrum seesaws

• Ladders — Horizontal, Rung, & Step

• Overhead rings***

• Merry-go-rounds/spinners

• Ramps

• Ring treks

• Slides*

• Spiral slides more than one 360° turn

• Stairways

• Swings — belt & rotating tire

• Track/trolley rides

• Vertical sliding poles

* See §5.3.6

** See §5.3.2

*** See §5.3.2.5

2.3 Selecting Equipment

When selecting playground equipment, it is important to know the age range of the children who will be using the playground. Children at different ages and stages of development have different needs and abilities. Playgrounds should be designed to stimulate children and encourage them to develop new skills, but should be in scale with their sizes, abilities, and developmental levels. Consideration

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Table 1 shows the appropriate age range for various pieces of playground equipment. This is not an all-comprehensive list and, therefore, should not limit inclusion of current or newly designed equipment that is not specifically mentioned. For equipment listed in more than one group, there may be some modifications or restrictions based on age, so consult the specific recommendations in §5.3.

2.3.1 Equipment not recommended

Some playground equipment is not recommended for use on public playgrounds, including:

• Swinging elements that do not comply with ASTM F1487 criteria for suspended element impact attenuation testing to minimize impact related injuries.

• Trampolines.

• Giant strides

• Climbing ropes that are not secured at both ends.

• Rope swings – Free-swinging ropes that may fray or otherwise form a loop are not recommended because they present a potential strangulation hazard.

• Swinging dual exercise rings and trapeze bars – These are rings and trapeze bars on long chains that are generally considered to be items of athletic equipment and are not recommended for public playgrounds. NOTE: The recommendation against the use of exercise rings does not apply to overhead hanging rings such as those used in a ring trek or ring ladder (see Figure 7).

2.4 Surfacing

Shock-absorbing, protective surfacing under and around playground equipment is one of the most important factors in reducing the likelihood of life-threatening head injuries resulting from falls. A fall onto a shock absorbing surface is less likely to cause a severe head injury than a fall onto a hard surface. However, some moderate injuries from falls may occur no matter what playground surfacing material is used.

The most widely used test method for evaluating the shock-absorbing properties of a playground surfacing material is to drop an instrumented metal head form onto a sample of the material and record the acceleration/time pulse during the impact. Laboratory test methods are described in ASTM F1292. Installed playground surfacing should be tested to ASTM F3313 to confirm the field performance of the surfacing.

Laboratory testing using the methods described in ASTM F1292 will provide a “critical height” rating of the surface. This height can be considered as an approximation of the fall height below which a life-threatening head injury would not be expected to occur. Manufacturers and installers of playground protective surfacing should provide the critical height rating of their materials. This rating should be greater than or equal to the fall height of the highest piece of equipment on the playground. The fall height of a piece of equipment is the distance between the highest designated play surface on a piece of equipment and the protective surface beneath it. Details for determining the highest designated play surface and fall height on some types of equipment are included in §5 Parts of the Playground.

Shock-absorbing, protective surfacing is recommended under and around all elevated playground equipment for which a child is unable to maintain contact with the ground during play.

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2.4.1 Equipment not covered by protective surfacing

recommendations

The recommendations for protective surfacing do not apply to equipment that requires a child to be standing or sitting at ground level. Examples of such equipment are:

• Sand boxes

• Activity walls at ground level

• Play houses

• Any other equipment that children use when their feet remain in contact with the ground surface

• Any material impact-tested to ASTM F1292, including unitary surfaces, engineered wood fiber complying with ASTM F2075, loose-fill rubber mulch complying with ASTM F3012, etc.

• Materials not typically impact-tested before sale, but may be used if they are impact-tested before and/or after installation:

• Pea gravel

• Sand

• Wood mulch (not CCA-treated)

• Wood chips

• Asphalt

• Carpet, mats, or other surfaces not impact-tested to ASTM F1292

• Concrete

• Dirt

• Grass

• CCA treated wood mulch

2.4.2 Selecting a surfacing material

Elevated playground equipment should never be installed without protective surfacing of some type.

There are two options available for surfacing public playgrounds: unitary and loose-fill materials.

Concrete, asphalt, or other hard surfaces should never be directly under playground equipment. Grass and dirt are not considered protective surfacing because wear and environmental factors can reduce their shock-absorbing effectiveness. Carpeting and mats are also not appropriate unless they are impact-tested to and comply with ASTM F1292.

Loose-fill surfacing materials should be avoided for playgrounds intended for toddlers or children who frequently place objects in their mouths.

Appropriate Surfacing Inappropriate Surfacing

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2.4.2.1 Unitary surfacing materials

Unitary materials are generally rubber mats and tiles or a combination of energy-absorbing materials held in place by a binder that may be poured in place at the playground site and then cured to form a unitary shock-absorbing surface. Unitary materials are available from a number of different manufacturers, many of whom have a range of materials with differing shock-absorbing properties.

New surfacing materials, such as bonded wood fiber and combinations of loose-fill and unitary, are being developed that may also be tested to ASTM F1292 and fall into the unitary materials category. When deciding on the best surfacing materials keep in mind that some dark colored surfacing materials exposed to the intense sun have caused blistering on bare feet. Check with the manufacturer if light colored materials are available or provide shading to reduce direct sun exposure.

Persons wishing to install a unitary material as a playground surface should request ASTM F1292 test data from the manufacturer identifying the critical height rating of the desired surface. In addition, site requirements should be obtained from the manufacturer because some unitary materials require installation over a hard surface while others do not. Manufacturer’s instructions should be followed closely, as some unitary systems require professional installation. Installation and maintenance of poured in place surfacing should also follow ASTM F2479.

2.4.2.2 Loose fill surfacing materials

Engineered wood fiber (EWF) is a wood product that may look similar in appearance to landscaping mulch, but EWF surfacing products are designed specifically for use as a playground safety surface under and around playground equipment. EWF surfacing products should meet the specifications in ASTM F2075 and be impact-tested to and comply with ASTM F1292.

There are also rubber mulch products that are designed specifically for use as playground surfacing.

Make sure they have been tested to and comply with ASTM F3012 and ASTM F1292.

When installing EWF or rubber mulch, tips 1-10 listed below should be followed. Each manufacturer of EWF and rubber mulch should provide maintenance requirements for and test data on:

• Critical height based on ASTM F1292 impact attenuation testing.

• Minimum fill-depth data.

• Toxicity.

• ADA/ABA accessibility guidelines for firmness and stability based on ASTM F1951.

Other loose-fill materials are generally landscaping-type materials that may not be designed or tested specifically as protective surfacing for use on playgrounds. Some examples include wood mulch, wood chips, sand, pea gravel, and some types of loose-fill rubber mulch. Always check whether these loose-fill materials have been performance-tested before using. Materials should be field tested to ASTM F3313 after installation.

Important tips when considering loose-fill materials:

1. Loose-fill materials will compress at least 25% over time due to use and weathering. This must be considered when planning the playground. For example, if the playground will require 9 inches of wood chips, then the initial fill level should be 12 inches. See Table 2 below.

2. Loose-fill surfacing requires frequent maintenance to ensure surfacing levels never drop below the minimum depth. Areas under swings and at slide exits are more susceptible to displacement; special attention must be paid to maintenance in these areas. Additionally, wear mats can be installed in these areas to reduce displacement.

3. The perimeter of the playground should provide a method of containing the loose-fill materials.

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4. Consider marking equipment supports with a minimum fill level to aid in maintaining the original depth of material.

5. Good drainage is essential to maintaining loose-fill surfacing. Standing water with surfacing material reduces effectiveness and leads to material compaction and decomposition.

6. Critical height may be reduced during winter in areas where the ground freezes.

7. Never maintain less than 9 inches of loose-fill material except for rubber mulch (6 inches recommended). Shallower depths are too easily displaced and compacted.

8. Some loose-fill materials may not meet ADA/ABA accessibility guidelines. For more information, contact the Access Board (see §1.6) or refer to ASTM F1951.

9. Wood mulch containing chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated wood products should not be used; mulch where the CCA-content is unknown should be avoided (see §2.5.5.1).

10. Untested rubber mulch made from recycled tires and EWF made from recycled wood products may contain hazardous metals or other substances of concern. These materials should be avoided on playgrounds for toddlers due to their higher rates of mouthing. Rubber mulch should only be used if it meets ASTM F3012 (loose-fill rubber testing). EWF should only be used if it meets ASTM F2075 (EWF testing).

If impact-tested materials with manufacturer-specified critical heights are not available, Table 2 shows the minimum required depths of non-impact-tested loose-fill material needed based on material type and critical height. The materials will become compressed due to use and weathering and must be properly maintained at the given depth. Field testing can be used to confirm a material’s critical height.

Table 2. Non-impact-tested loose-fill surfacing depths (when tested materials are not available)

Minimum depth when installed (inches)

Minimum depth when compressed

(inches)

Non-impact-tested loose-fill material

Protects to this Critical Height

(feet)**

8* 6* Rubber mulch 10

12 9 Sand 4

12 9 Pea gravel 5

12 9 Wood mulch (non-CCA) 7

12 9 Wood chips 10

* Rubber loose-fill surfacing does not compress in the same manner as other loose-fill materials. However, care should be taken to maintain a constant depth as displacement may still occur.

** “Critical Height” is the maximum fall height to which the given depth of loose-fill surfacing can be expected to protect against a life-threatening head injury. Critical height may be reduced due to extreme heat or cold, wind, lack of drainage, freezing of ground/water, compacting, deterioration, and lack of proper maintenance.

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2.4.2.3 Installing loose fill over hard surface

CPSC strongly recommends against installing playgrounds over hard surfaces, such as asphalt, concrete, or hard packed earth, unless the installation adds the following layers of protection.

Immediately over the hard surface there should be a base layer appropriate for drainage (does not contribute to protective surfacing performance). The next layer should be a Geotextile cloth to prevent cross-contamination between layers. On top of that should be a loose-fill layer for protective surfacing, meeting the specifications addressed in §2.4.2.2 and Table 2. Shock-absorbing mats used under high traffic areas, such as under swings, at slide exits, and other places where displacement is likely due to directed motion, should be flush with the top surface of the loose-fill layer. Figure 1 provides a visual representation of this information. Older playgrounds that still exist on hard surfacing should be modified to provide appropriate surfacing.

Loose-fill surfacing will require routine inspection and…