M2M-30044 Lunar Surface Data Book Baseline_Final.pdf

NASA/TP-20250002845

Moon to Mars (M2M)

M2M-30044

BASELINE

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

RELEASE DATE: MARCH 18, 2025

Lora Dishongh NASA, Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX

MOON TO MARS (M2M)

LUNAR SURFACE DATA BOOK

This document has been reviewed for Proprietary, CUI, and Export Control (ITAR/EAR) and has been determined to be non-sensitive. It has been released to the public via the NASA Scientific and

Technical Information (STI) Process DAA 20250002845.

Revision: Baseline Document No: M2M-30044

Effective Date: March 18, 2025 Page: 2 of 93

Title: Lunar Surface Data Book

This document has been approved for public release per DAA 20220015275.

This document has been approved for public release per DAA #20250002845.

REVISION AND HISTORY PAGE

Revision No.

Change No.

Description Effective

Date

ACD-50044

ACD-

C0032

Initial Baseline Release (Reference Artemis Campaign Development (ACD) Control Board (ACB), dated 10/06/22)

10/06/22

ACD-50044

A

ACD-

C0065

Editorial changes throughout; moved section 6.0 to new section 6.1; added content to sections 5.0 and 7.0;

added new sections 3.1.1, 3.1.2, 3.2.2 through 3.2.8,

4.4 through 4.12, 5.3, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 7.3.4, and 7.3.5; expanded section 3.2 beyond LRO; expanded section 4.3; broadened the scope of the traverse sections in 7.3; added content to Appendices A and B;

added Appendices D and E; added links to all references; revised and expanded the reference documents list; assigned tracking numbers to baselined TBXs and added several more; reorganized Appendix C.

05/19/23

M2M-30044 Baseline

M2M- C0082

Changed document number to M2M-30044; editorial changes throughout; updated ACD references to M2M replacements throughout; 1.1 expanded purpose; 1.2 expanded scope; 2.1 added Lunar Sourcebook as Applicable Document; 2.2 removed specific vehicle documents from reference list and added NASA standards; 3 expanded to include more than LRO; 4.1 added paragraph on the AGDT; added section 4.2.5;

4.8 described how to use the DSNE thermal environment; 6.1 expanded discussion of regolith parameters; 6.2.1 expanded plume surface interaction discussion; 6.2.2 expanded trafficability discussion; 6.3 expanded illumination discussion; redesignated 7.1 for South Pole Exploration Sites; redesignated 7.2 for Terrain 101; 7.3 added a discussion of general traverse design methodology, renamed example traverses to be more descriptive and not reference earlier mission architectures, and added two very long traverses; swapped order of Appendices B and C (B is now open items, C is now references); added Table C1-3 and associated Short Names for links; and added Appendix F on Reference Frames

03/18/25

Effective Date: March 18, 2025 Page: 3 of 93

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION PAGE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 PURPOSE

1.2 SCOPE

1.3 CHANGE AUTHORITY/RESPONSIBILITY

2.0 DOCUMENTS

2.1 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS

2.2 REFERENCE DOCUMENTS

3.0 LUNAR SURFACE DATA SOURCES

3.1 IN SITU LUNAR SURFACE DATA

3.1.1 Apollo Data

3.1.2 Lunokhod and Other Robotic Missions

3.2 ORBITAL DATA RELEVANT TO THE SURFACE

3.2.1 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO)

3.2.2 Clementine

3.2.3 Lunar Prospector

3.2.4 Kaguya

3.2.5 LCROSS

3.2.6 GRAIL

3.2.7 Chandrayaan 1, 2, and 3

3.2.8 Danuri (KPLO)

4.0 LUNAR SURFACE DATA PRODUCTS

4.1 FOUNDATIONAL PRODUCTS

4.2 VISIBLE IMAGERY & ALTIMETRY

4.2.1 Nadir Imagery

4.2.2 Oblique Imagery

4.2.3 Mosaics

4.2.4 Topographic Data Products

4.2.5 Compilations

4.3 DERIVED IMAGERY & ALTIMETRY PRODUCTS

4.3.1 Slope Map

4.3.2 Shaded Relief Map (Hillshade)

4.3.3 Surface Roughness Analyses

4.3.4 Aspect-Slope Map

4.3.5 Illumination Maps

4.3.6 Earth Visibility Maps

4.3.7 Hazard Maps

4.4 LUNAR SURFACE GEOPHYSICAL PROPERITES

4.5 LUNAR SURFACE PLASMA ENVIRONMENT

4.6 LUNAR REGOLITH ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

4.7 LUNAR REGOLITH OPTICAL PROPERTIES

4.8 LUNAR THERMAL ENVIRONMENT

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4.9 LUNAR IONIZING RADIATION ENVIRONMENT

4.10 LUNAR METEOROID & EJECTA ENVIRONMENT

4.11 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

4.12 MINERALOGICAL MAPS

5.0 MODELING ANALYSES AND ASSUMPTIONS

5.1 LOLA ILLUMINATION ANALYSIS

5.2 EARTHSHINE MAP

5.3 ASSUMPTIONS

6.0 LUNAR TERRAIN CHARACTERISTICS

6.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

6.2 CHARACTERISTICS SPECIFIC TO INTERACTION WITH THE SURFACE

6.2.1 Plume-Surface Interaction

6.2.2 Trafficability

6.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ILLUMINATION

6.3.1 Seasonal Variation

6.3.2 Impact on Power Systems

6.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDS

7.0 EXAMPLE USE CASES LEVERAGING LUNAR SURFACE DATA

7.1 SOUTH POLE EXPLORATION SITES

7.2 TERRAIN 101

7.3 REPRESENTATIVE TRAVERSES

7.3.1 General Traverse Design Methodology

7.3.2 Short Flat Traverse

7.3.3 Illuminated Science Traverse

7.3.4 Steep Traverses

7.3.5 Long Gentle Traverse

7.3.6 Long Challenging Traverse

APPENDIX A ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND GLOSSARIES

APPENDIX B OPEN WORK

APPENDIX C REFERENCE MATERIAL

APPENDIX D DATA REQUEST PROCESS

APPENDIX E MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS DARKNESS

APPENDIX F REFERENCE FRAMES

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TABLE OF TABLES

TABLE 2.1-1 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS

TABLE 2.2-1 REFERENCE DOCUMENTS

TABLE 6.1-1 SLOPES INHERENT TO LUNAR SOUTH POLE REGION

TABLE 6.1-2 LUNAR REGOLITH TRAFFICABILITY PARAMETERS FOR APOLLO LRV SIMULATIONS ... 40

TABLE 7.3-1 EXAMPLE TRAVERSES

TABLE 7.3.2.1-1 MORPHOMETRY SUMMARY OF SHORT FLAT TRAVERSE

TABLE7.3.3.1-1 MORPHOMETRY SUMMARY TRAVERSE FROM CR1 TO SR1

TABLE 7.3.3.1-2 MORPHOMETRY SUMMARY TRAVERSE FROM SR3 TO PSR1

TABLE 7.3.4.1-1 OF MORPHOMETRY SUMMARY TRAVERSE FROM CR1 TO PSR1 AND PSR2

TABLE 7.3.4.1-2 MORPHOMETRY SUMMARY OF TRAVERSE FROM CR1 TO PSR3

TABLE 7.3.5.1-1 MORPHOMETRY SUMMARY OF LONG GENTLE TRAVERSE

TABLE A1.0-1 ACRONYMNS AND ABBREVIATIONS

TABLE A2.0-1 LUNAR SURFACE TERMINOLOGY

TABLE A2.1-1 LUNAR SOUTH POLE FEATURES

TABLE B1.0-1 TO BE DETERMINED ITEMS

TABLE B2.0-1 TO BE RESOLVED ITEMS

TABLE B3.0-1 FORWARD WORK ISSUES

TABLE C1-1 REFERENCE SOURCES

TABLE C1-2 ADDITIONAL REFERENCES NOT CITED IN TEXT

TABLE C1-3 REFERENCE LINK SHORTHAND

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TABLE OF FIGURES

FIGURE 4.2-1 DEFINITIONS OF SENSOR ORIENTATION

FIGURE 4.2.1-1 ANNOTATED EXAMPLE NADIR IMAGE OF THE APOLLO 11 LANDING SITE

FIGURE 4.2.2-1 OBLIQUE LROC NAC IMAGE OF THE APOLLO 16 LANDING SITE

FIGURE 4.2.3.1-1 EXAMPLE UNCONTROLLED MOSAIC

FIGURE 4.2.3.3-1 A SEAMLESS MOSAIC

FIGURE 5.0-1 SITE KNOWLEDGE VS. LANDER TOLERANCE

FIGURE 5.2-1 MAXIMUM EARTHSHINE FLUX INCIDENT ON POLAR PSRS

FIGURE 6.2.2-1 LUNAR SURFACE STRATA

FIGURE 6.3.1-1 LUNAR ILLUMINATION AND ELEVATION ANGLES OVER A LUNAR YEAR

FIGURE 7.0-1 CANDIDATE LANDING REGIONS

FIGURE 7.3-1 MOBILE VEHICLE DIMENSIONAL TERMINOLOGY

FIGURE 7.3.2.1-1 ELEVATION, DIRECTIONAL SLOPE, AND SLOPE PROFILES FOR SHORT FLAT

TRAVERSE

FIGURE 7.3.2.7-1 SHORT LEVEL TRAVERSE – 1.3KM WITH SLOPE UNDER 10 DEGREES

FIGURE 7.3.3-1 EXAMPLE WELL-ILLUMINATED SCIENCE TRAVERSE

FIGURE 7.3.3.1-1 ELEVATION, DIRECTIONAL SLOPE, AND SLOPE PROFILES FOR TRAVERSE PATH

FROM CR1 TO SR1 OF THE SHACKLETON - DE GERLACHE REGION

FIGURE 7.3.3.1-2 ELEVATION, DIRECTIONAL SLOPE, AND SLOPE PROFILES FOR TRAVERSE PATH

SR3 TO PSR1 OF THE SHACKLETON - DE GERLACHE REGION

FIGURE 7.3.3.7-1 REPRESENTATIVE TRAVERSE FROM STATIONS CR1 TO SR1 ON A SLOPE MAP OF

THE SHACKLETON - DE GERLACHE REGION

FIGURE 7.3.3.7-2 REPRESENTATIVE TRAVERSE FROM STATIONS SR3 TO PSR1 OVERLAIN ON A

SLOPE MAP OF THE SHACKLETON - DE GERLACHE REGION

FIGURE 7.3.4.1-1 ELEVATION, DIRECTIONAL SLOPE, AND SLOPE PROFILES FOR TRAVERSE PATH

SHOWN FROM CR1 TO PSR1 AND PSR2 OF THE SHACKLETON - DE GERLACHE REGION

FIGURE 7.3.4.1-2 ELEVATION, DIRECTIONAL SLOPE, AND SLOPE PROFILES FOR TRAVERSE PATH

FROM CR1 TO PSR3 OF THE SHACKLETON - DE GERLACHE REGION

FIGURE 7.3.4.7-1 TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF THE SHACKLETON - DE GERLACHE CONNECTING RIDGE, SHOWING A ROUND-TRIP TRAVERSE FROM CR1 TO PSR1 AND PSR2

FIGURE 7.3.4.7-2 TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF THE SHACKLETON – DE GERLACHE CONNECTING RIDGE

SHOWING A ROUND-TRIP TRAVERSE FROM CR1 TO PSR3

FIGURE 7.3.5.1-1 ELEVATION, DIRECTIONAL SLOPE, AND SLOPE PROFILES FOR LONG GENTLE

TRAVERSE PATH FROM CONNECTING RIDGE TO PEAK NEAR SHACKLETON

FIGURE 7.3.5.7-1 LONG GENTLE TRAVERSE BETWEEN CONNECTING RIDGE (CR) AND PEAK NEAR

SHACKLETON (PS)

FIGURE E1.0-1 MAP OF AVERAGE SOLAR ILLUMINATION

FIGURE E1.0-2 EXAMPLE TRAVERSE ILLUMINATION MATRIX (LEFT) AND ILLUMINATION CONDITIONS

(RIGHT)

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 PURPOSE

Artemis missions will need to reference and work with a common set of lunar surface data, products, and analytical assumptions to accomplish Artemis mission science, exploration, and operational objectives. This Lunar Surface Data Book is intended to be used as a reference for candidate vendors and agency personnel who are addressing Artemis lunar surface challenges to ensure a common set of data sources and assumptions when interpreting remote sensing data specific to the needs of surface mission planning. Analogous to a road atlas or a hiker’s guide, mission planners and hardware design requirement owners are encouraged to refer to the Lunar Surface Data Book piecemeal: use only the sections that make sense for the specific mission or hardware in question. This data book is intended to supplement requirements documents, providing additional supporting information to help designers understand the terrain and other characteristics of the lunar surface that may not be appropriate to detail in high-level requirements documents.

1.2 SCOPE

This document provides a common reference set of existing lunar surface data, products, analytical assumptions, and representative use cases to be incorporated into Artemis surface mission planning efforts. This document pertains solely to the surface of the Moon and the ecosystem of data and products to be used to describe the lunar surface. The focus of this document is the lunar south pole region, defined in the 2020 NASA Lunar Exploration Plan (more formally, NASA's Lunar Exploration Program Overview) as the region within six degrees latitude of the geographic lunar south pole. It is the region selected for long-term stays. Where the content presented does not apply directly in its details, users of this data book may either dig into the source data files and use this book as a guide for how to package and interpret that underlying data for themselves or seek assistance from the Artemis Geospatial Data Team (Appendix D). More specific data set interpretations will be added over time. While the book is not meant to be levied as a requirements document as a whole, users may find specific details such as individual traverses appropriate for reference by their requirements documents and for verification and validation. Additional scope includes use as background rationale for how requirements were derived.

1.3 CHANGE AUTHORITY/RESPONSIBILITY

NASA Office of Primary Responsibility (OPR) identified for this document is M2M Systems Engineering & Integration (SE&I). Proposed changes to this document shall be submitted via a Change Request (CR) to the appropriate Control Board for consideration and disposition. All such requests shall adhere to the M2M Configuration Management Process documented in M2M-30005, Moon to Mars (M2M) Program Configuration and Data Management Plan.

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2.0 DOCUMENTS

2.1 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS

Applicable documents are directly related to this document and cited within. The context and how to apply the applicable documents will be included as part of the document citation. The following documents include specifications, models, standards, guidelines, handbooks, and other special publications.

TABLE 2.1-1 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS

Document Number

Document Revision

Document Title

SLS-SPEC-159

(M2M-30159)

Current Revision Cross Program Design Specification for Natural Environments (DSNE)

ISBN 0-521-

33444-6

Lunar Sourcebook, A User’s Guide to the Moon

2.2 REFERENCE DOCUMENTS

A reference document is a document that provides additional information for the reader and may or may not be cited in this document. Additional references in this document can be found in Appendix C.

TABLE 2.2-1 REFERENCE DOCUMENTS

Document Number Document Title

ESDMD-001 Moon-to-Mars Architecture Definition Document

ESDMD-410 Lunar Surface Exploration Planning: Terrain Characteristics

M2M-30080 Lunar Geospatial Data Process Plan

M2M-30007 Artemis Integrated Concept of Operations

M2M-30007-ANX01 Artemis Integrated Lunar Surface Concept of Operations

NASA-STD-1008 Classifications and Requirements for Testing Systems and Hardware to be Exposed to Dust in Planetary Environments

NASA-STD-3001 Volume 2 NASA Spaceflight Human-System Standard Volume 2: Human Factors, Habitability, and Environmental Health

NP-2020-05-2853-HQ NASA's Lunar Exploration Program Overview

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3.0 LUNAR SURFACE DATA SOURCES

SLS-SPEC-159 Cross-Program Design Specifications for Natural Environments (DSNE) is the baseline source for all natural lunar environments. The DSNE is a mandatory engineering technical authority document and is fully applicable to the Artemis Campaign. The DSNE contains lunar surface environment characteristics for surface hardware design and verification.

The Lunar Surface Data Book complements the DSNE with additional site-specific characteristic data, products, analytical assumptions, and representative use cases.

Between 1963 and 1972, the Moon was a focus of an intense, integrated program of American exploration including robotic orbiters (Lunar Orbiter) and impactors (Ranger), soft landers (Surveyor) and crewed missions (Apollo). In the 21st century, an ambitious flotilla of international missions has developed a modern view of the Moon and its surface. These modern missions (e.g., the Japan Aerospace eXploration Agency (JAXA) Kaguya, European Space Agency (ESA) Smart 1, NASA/Department of Defense (DOD) Clementine, NASA Lunar Prospector, Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) Chandrayaan-1, NASA GRAIL (Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory), NASA LADEE (Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer), NASA LCROSS (Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite), and NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), and Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter (KPLO)) have all dramatically increased our understanding of the Moon's environment. Therefore, the Moon is the one planetary object besides Earth that has been systematically studied for over five decades from a variety of perspectives including remote observations, in situ measurements, human field work, and returned samples with appropriate geological context. With that full suite of data sources, lunar scientists and mission planners today have access to several data sources and products that characterize the lunar surface, making the Moon the most well-understood and well-characterized body in our solar system besides Earth. That relative wealth of knowledge compared to other solar system objects, especially when compared to the spartan state of our knowledge prior to the Apollo missions, enables 21st century lunar mission planners to optimize systems, do detailed mission planning, and enable transformative lunar science and exploration outcomes with future missions. This section describes the sources of data before reviewing the data themselves and only the most recent and relevant data is included.

This document presents a compilation of data readily available in NASA’s Planetary Data System and other data repositories with source data and detailed explanations as well as data interpretation available in peer-reviewed literature. Future Science Mission Directorate (SMD) Lunar Discovery and Exploration Program missions to the lunar poles will improve our understanding of lunar surface characteristics, including the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) Missions currently underway. The emphasis in this document is placed on the data from US missions, particularly that from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, because the provenance of those data is well-understand and fully characterized, and all Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter source data is fully and publicly available per long-standing NASA Policy.

3.1 IN SITU LUNAR SURFACE DATA

A robust set of surface data exists for the multiple landing sites visited by NASA missions (Surveyor and Apollo). Data for surface (regolith) geotechnical and rock abundance properties is

Effective Date: March 18, 2025 Page: 10 of 93 derived from both images/observations and physical measurements of the surface. The Lunar Sourcebook (Heiken et al., 1991) includes geotechnical data from the Lunokhod 1 and 2 uncrewed rovers that traversed 47 km of the lunar surface and collected on the order of 1000 cone vane penetrometer measurements of the upper 10 centimeters of the regolith. Much of the data from the 1960 and 1970s is not in modern formatting, only preserved as film negatives or tabular data formats. That said, the in-situ data presents our best understanding of the specific properties of the lunar surface which are directly applicable to Artemis mission planning. Given that, care must be used to not over-interpret landing site data that is NOT relevant to the lunar south pole. For example, much consternation could arise from assuming any site is similar to the rocky surface encountered by the Surveyor VII mission, which landed (autonomously) and without any active hazard avoidance in the rockiest region yet explored on the Moon. We have no reason to believe the south pole region will be in any way similar to that particular landing site. Instead, Artemis landing sites will be in the lunar highlands of the south pole region, resulting in operations much more comparable to the Apollo 14 and 16 landing sites. Data from these missions are available through NASA's Planetary Data System (PDS) (https://pds.nasa.gov/), hereafter referred to as the PDS Home Page, NASA's Space Science Data Coordinated Archive (NSSDC) (https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/), hereafter referred to as the NSSDC Home Page, and the Analyst’s Notebook (https://an.rsl.wustl.edu/). Links to data sets are provided in each individual subsection that follows. Table C1-3 in Appendix C compiles the data sources’ full names, short names used in this document, and web addresses.

3.1.1 Apollo Data

The Apollo program was the United States’s human spaceflight program under NASA which resulted in landing the first humans on the Moon. Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, with the first crewed flight in 1968 and set several major human spaceflight milestones.

It stands alone in sending crewed missions beyond low Earth orbit. Apollo 8 was the first crewed spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, and Apollo 11 was the first crewed spacecraft to land humans on the Moon.

The Apollo program returned 842 pounds (382 kg) of lunar rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of the Moon's composition and geological history. The program laid the foundation for NASA's subsequent human spaceflight capability. Apollo also advanced many areas of technology within rocketry and human spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers.

Link to Apollo 11 Data: NASA - NSSDCA - Spacecraft – Details, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1969-

059C, https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1969-059C

3.1.2 Lunokhod and Other Robotic Missions

3.1.2.1 Soviet Space Program Robotic Missions

The Luna/Lunokhod Missions are early examples of unmanned remote-controlled lunar vehicles.

https://pds.nasa.gov/ https://pds.nasa.gov/ https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ https://an.rsl.wustl.edu/ https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1969-059C

Effective Date: March 18, 2025 Page: 11 of 93

Luna 16, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 1970-072A, was the first robotic probe to land on the Moon and return a sample to Earth. It was the first lunar sample return mission by the Soviet Union. It followed the Apollo 11 and 12 missions, studying lunar gravity during its descent before landing as planned in the Sea of Fertility (Mare Fecunditatis) west of Webb crater. Luna 20, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 1972-007A, followed in early 1972, also landing and returning with a sample taken from the Sea of Fertility. Luna 24, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 1976-081E (descent craft only) and 1976-081A (overall), was the last Luna series spacecraft and the third Soviet Union mission to retrieve lunar ground samples. It performed its mission in August 1976, landing, retrieving a sample, and returning to Earth from the Sea of Crisis (Mare Crisium).

The Lunokhod missions were the rovers of the Luna series. NSSDC lists Lunokhod 1/Luna 17 as NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 1970-095A and provides a brief description; the Rand Corporation provides a downloadable PDF report of the Lunokhod-1 mission written by Simon Kassel in 1971, “Lunokhod-1 Soviet Lunar Surface Vehicle.”

https://www.rand.org/pubs/reports/R0802.html. Lunokhod 2/Luna 21 collected morphological data in the Sea of Rains (Mare Imbrium) and along the Fossa Recta; a downloadable PDF study of Lunokhod-2 data was published by Basilevsky (1977), “A possible lunar outcrop: a study of Lunokhod-2 data.” https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00566850. The mission is also cataloged as NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 1973-001A by NASA NSSDC.

3.1.2.2 Chinese Lunar Exploration Program Robotic Missions

The Chang’e Missions are a current and on-going series of so-far robotic lunar vehicles.

Chang'e 1, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 2007-051A, launched 24 October 2007, was China's first lunar orbiter. It validated the technology and engineering necessary to fly lunar missions and begin exploration of the lunar surface, providing experience for subsequent missions. Chang'e 1 was a success, orbiting the Moon for four months beyond its planned one-year life before exercising a planned impact north of the Sea of Fertility.

Chang'e 2, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 2010-050A, followed in 2010. It expanded the high-resolution surface image collection started by Chang’e 1, then left lunar orbit to enter the L2 Sun-Earth Lagrange point orbit in August 2011 where it stayed until April 2012, waiting to execute an asteroid fly-by mission. It passed within a few kilometers of asteroid 4179 Toutatis on 13 December 2012, taking close-up images at a relative velocity of 10.7 km/s.

Chang'e 3, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 2013-070A, launched in December 2013 and carried the Yutu “Jade Rabbit” rover (2013-070C) to the Sea of Rains, proving out that technological development. It was followed by Chang'e 4 (2018-103A), carrying rover Yutu-2 to the Von Karman crater in the South Pole-Aitkin Basin. Chang’e 4 landed 03 January 2019, making it the first spacecraft to make a controlled landing on the far side of the Moon. Landing coordinates were calculated from LRO images as 45.4561 S latitude, 177.5885 E longitude, to within a few meters. The Yutu-2 rover drove down ramps from the body of the Chang’e 4 craft and started its mission. On 6 January the rover went into a planned hibernation to protect itself from the heat of lunar noon and awoke on 10 January to continue travelling and making measurements. It shut down over the local lunar night that started January 13 or 14. The rover and lander each used a radioisotopic heat source to maintain survival temperatures, and successfully resumed daytime operations on 29 and 30 January 2019, respectively. As of the latest data available to NSSDC, https://www.rand.org/pubs/reports/R0802.html https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00566850

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Yutu-2 hibernated during the lunar night and operated during the lunar day, as planned, through at least October 2022.

Chang’e 5, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 2020-087A, launched in November 2020 on a sample return mission, matured from test mission Chang’e 5-T1 (2014-065A). It consisted of an orbiter, lander, ascender, and return vehicle. The lander/ascender portion set down in the Mons Rümker region of Oceanus Procellarum (43.058 N, 51.916 W), collected samples, and launched the sample container in its small ascender module that rendezvoused with the orbiter/return vehicle and docked on December 5. The sample container was transferred to the return vehicle, then the ascender was jettisoned from the orbiter. The ascender impacted the Moon 7 December 2020 near 30 S, 0 E, and the orbiter/return vehicle continued to orbit the Moon for 5 days. The Chang’e 5 orbiter fired its rockets to enter an Earth-Moon transfer orbit. On the way back to Earth, the Chang'e 5 orbiter separated from the sample return vehicle, and fired its rockets to head for the Sun-Earth Lagrange point L1 for an extended mission to test technology and observe the Sun. The now-separate sample return craft performed an atmospheric "skip" reentry on December 16 and landed successfully with a reported 1.731 kg of lunar regolith.

Chang'e 6, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID CHANG-E-6, launched in May 2024 on a similar sample return mission to Chang’e 5, going to the far side of the Moon with a small rover like Chang’e 4.

Chang'e 6 orbited for 20 days to find an appropriate landing site before the lander separated for descent and landing in the southern part of the Apollo crater, inside the South Pole Aitken Basin, at coordinates 41.6385 S, 153.9852 W. Solar panels, an antenna, and science experiments were deployed and communications were established via the Queqiao-2 relay satellite, enabling communications from the lunar far side after landing. The small rover deployed, drove a short distance away, and took pictures of the Chang'e 6 lander. Samples were collected, and the ascent vehicle launched and docked with the Chang'e 6 orbiter-return vehicle on June 6. The samples were transferred into the return vehicle and the ascender was again released to impact the lunar surface. The orbiter-return vehicle left orbit about June 21 with the sample return craft performing an atmospheric “skip” reentry on June 25 with over 1.9 kg of lunar material.

3.2 ORBITAL DATA RELEVANT TO THE SURFACE

To understand the lunar surface and its environment, NASA and other spacefaring nations have sent numerous missions to lunar orbit, leading to the largest volume of data for any planetary body outside of the Earth. This document focuses on lunar remote sensing data and the respective derived products.

3.2.1 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO)

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 2009-031A) was launched on 18 June 2009 from what is now Cape Canaveral Space Force Station on an Atlas V 401 rocket.

LRO remains in lunar orbit and is operational as of September 2024. LRO was designed to meet the requirements of the former Exploration Systems Mission Directorate (ESMD) to identify safe landing sites for crewed and robotic missions to the Moon, understand the lunar radiation environment, and characterize potential lunar resources. The LRO mission operations are funded until at least October 2025, spacecraft health non-withstanding. After arriving at the Moon in 2009, LRO spent several months in an elliptical, stable frozen 30 x 216 km orbit with

Effective Date: March 18, 2025 Page: 13 of 93 apoapsis over the lunar south pole. Over the next two years the spacecraft transitioned into a 50 x 50 km circular polar mapping orbit. Following the completion of its baseline mapping mission in 2010, LRO transitioned into a quasi-stable 30 x 216 km polar orbit which has slowly evolved to a nearly circular 100 km orbit, where it remains today (2024). This polar orbit has allowed for the substantial collection of polar remote sensing data. These products are the best possible dataset that can be used to identify scientifically interesting and relatively safe exploration areas.

Despite the spacecraft’s natural orbital procession away from direct south polar overflights, it is still possible that additional Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera images can be targeted for select areas in the polar regions; please contact the LRO Project Scientist for additional information using the formal data request process in Appendix D. The LRO mission instrument suite and scientific outcomes have been well-described in multiple publications, including Vondrak et al. 2010 and Keller et al. 2016. LRO carries seven instruments, each designed to investigate a specific aspect of the lunar environment relevant to future exploration. We briefly summarize the LRO instrument suite in this section.

3.2.1.1 The Cosmic Ray Telescope for the Effects of Radiation (CRaTER)

LRO’s CRaTER instrument characterizes the lunar radiation environment and the associated biological impacts. It does this by collecting data from a variety of charged particles and their energies particularly above 10 MeV. This data allows scientists to better understand what hazards future human explorers will be subjected to.

Radiation in the lunar environment results from the Sun and beyond the solar system (galactic cosmic rays). CRaTER data has allowed scientists to determine the potential biological impacts of the radiation. Furthermore, CRaTER also tests models of radiation effects and shielding and measures radiation absorption by human tissue-like plastic, aiding in the development of protective technologies to help keep crews safe. CRaTER data is available through the NSSDC Master Catalog (https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/).

3.2.1.2 Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (DLRE)

Understanding the lunar thermal environment at both the sub-surface and surface is critical for planning future crewed and robotic exploration missions. In contrast to the Apollo missions, which featured equatorial landing sites and whose surface activities were planned only during the lunar day, NASA’s new lunar exploration program will have missions taking place at much higher latitudes. Furthermore, these missions will eventually consist of longer-term crewed stays of longer than two weeks.

LRO’s DLRE (more commonly referred to as Diviner) is an instrument designed to measure lunar surface temperatures at scales that provide essential information for future surface operations and exploration. Diviner is the first instrument to capture day and night temperature observations. This data set has been used to identify potential polar ice deposits, derive subsurface temperatures and to map temporal surface variations. Since July 2009, Diviner has acquired about one trillion radiometric observations, making it the most highly detailed set of thermal measurements of any planetary body.

https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/

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A key Diviner objective is to determine the temperatures within Permanently Shadowed Regions (PSRs), to understand the potential of these areas to harbor water ice. Orbital thermal mapping measurements also provide detailed information on surface parameters such as composition, hazards, rough terrain, and rocks. The Diviner instrument can determine surface temperatures to within 5 °C across areas as small as 300 m using 9 different wavelengths between 7 and 200 microns.

Diviner seasonal bolometric temperature data products are commonly used for preliminary evaluation of polar regions of interest. These include the maximum, average, minimum and amplitude maps at 240 meters per pixel (Williams et al., 2019).

The data product descriptions and links to seasonal and hourly temperature products are available from the project team’s website:

Data | diviner (https://www.diviner.ucla.edu/data), will be referred to as the Diviner PDS Archive

Index of /~jpierre/diviner/level4_polar/additional_maps (https://luna1.diviner.ucla.edu/~jpierre/diviner/level4_polar/additional_maps/)

The seasonal temperature variations are described in detail and mapped by Williams et al (2019), available here: https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JE006028.

The Diviner data is available from the PDS archive at different levels of processing:

PDS Geosciences Node Data and Services: LRO Diviner Data Sets (https://pds-geosciences.wustl.edu/missions/lro/diviner.htm)

3.2.1.3 Lyman Alpha Mapping Project (LAMP)

LAMP is an imaging ultraviolet spectrometer, detecting UV light between 1200 and 1800 Å with an effective surface spatial resolution of up to 200 m per pixel near the poles (Gladstone et al.

2010). Developed and built by a team of scientists and engineers from the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), LAMP maps the entire lunar surface in the far ultraviolet part of the spectrum, including areas in permanent shadow.

LAMP’s primary mission objective is to search for surface ice and frost in the polar regions, providing images of permanently shadowed regions illuminated only by starlight and the glow of interplanetary hydrogen emission, known as the Lyman Alpha line. The valuable resources like water and ice that LAMP helps identify could play a role in determining suitable areas for the construction of crewed south pole infrastructure.

LAMP data is available through the NSSDC Master Catalog.

3.2.1.4 Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND)

LEND is a neutron spectrometer similar to the High Energy Neutron Detector (HEND) on the Mars Odyssey spacecraft. LEND was designed to search for water ice in permanently shadowed regions of the lunar south pole by mapping the distribution of hydrogen and https://www.diviner.ucla.edu/data https://luna1.diviner.ucla.edu/~jpierre/diviner/level4_polar/additional_maps/ https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JE006028 https://pds-geosciences.wustl.edu/missions/lro/diviner.htm https://pds-geosciences.wustl.edu/missions/lro/diviner.htm

Effective Date: March 18, 2025 Page: 15 of 93 hydrogen-bearing compounds. The dataset’s spatial resolution at the polar regions is 10 km with a sensitivity not less than 0.01 mass fraction. Due to LRO’s polar orbit configuration, LEND data is densest, and therefore of highest resolution, in areas around the south pole.

The LEND dataset has been used to identify areas of possibly enhanced hydrogen abundance, of interest for future in-situ resource utilization. Refer to LEND papers Mitrofanov et al (2010) and Sanin et al (2017).

LEND data is available through the NSSDC Master Catalog.

3.2.1.5 Miniature Radio Frequency (Mini-RF)

Mini-RF (Raney et al, 2011) is an advanced synthetic aperture radar (SAR) instrument. The first instrument was launched in October 2008 on board the Indian Space Research Organization’s Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft. On this spacecraft, Mini-RF collected both north and south polar lunar data until August 2009. The second Mini-RF instrument is now flying onboard NASA’s LRO and has been collecting observations for more than ten years.

Mini-RF is designed to search for subsurface water ice in the lunar polar regions and to map rock distributions. The instrument is capable of imaging terrain at two wavelengths, X-band (4.2

cm) and S-Band (12.6 cm), and two resolutions. The baseline resolution is 75 meters-per-pixel (mpp) and the zoom resolution is 15 mpp. The instrument also measures topography via interferometry at 15 mpp and sub-meter vertical resolution.

The instrument no longer has the capability to transmit radar signals, only to receive them.

Therefore, it now operates in a receive-only mode measuring bistatic radar signals transmitted from ground-based radio telescopes and reflected off the lunar surface. Data from Mini-RF has been used to study crater geology and mineralogy, as well as material in PSRs of deep polar craters. Refer to Mandt et al, 2016.

Mini-RF data is available through the NSSDC Master Catalog.

3.2.1.6 Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA)

The LOLA instrument (Smith et al, 2010) provides topographic measurements of the lunar surface to by pulsing a single laser at 1064 nm wavelength, splitting the output into five separate beams that illuminate the lunar surface 28 times per second. For each beam, LOLA measures the time of flight (range), pulse spreading (surface roughness), and transmit/return energy (surface reflectance). This allows the topography to be determined, along with an indication of whether the surface is rough or smooth at scales relevant for Exploration planning. LOLA is the "fundamental" dataset for all LRO instruments, providing the foundational global lunar topographic model and geodetic grid that will serve as the framework to enable precise positioning, safe landing, and surface mobility, as well as characterizing the polar illumination environment. LOLA data is available through the NSSDC Master Catalog.

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3.2.1.7 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC)

LROC consists of three cameras (Robinson et al., 2010). There are two Narrow Angle Cameras (NACs) that provide panchromatic images over a 5-km swath from the 50km nominal mapping orbit, with resolutions varying from 0.5 to 3 meters per pixel, depending on orbital altitude. There is also a Wide-Angle Camera (WAC), which provides multispectral images with a pixel scale of 100 meters per pixel over seven color bands with a 60 km swath. LROC is designed to address fundamental exploration objectives, including:

• Characterize potential landing sites at the meter scale.

• Map regions of permanent shadow or illumination.

• Create high-resolution maps of the surface, including polar massifs with near-permanent illumination.

• Observe regions from multiple angles to derive high-resolution meter-scale topography.

• Map the global distribution of the mineral ilmenite (a key lunar resource).

• Create a global morphology base map.

• Characterize lunar regolith.

• Establish impact rates for hazard analysis (impactor type requires instrument advancements).

LROC image data is available through the NSSDC Master Catalog.

3.2.2 Clementine

The objective of this joint project between the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO) and NASA was to test sensors and spacecraft components exposed to the space environment, obtaining multi-spectral imaging of the entire lunar surface, assessing the surface mineralogy of the Moon, and obtaining altimetry from 60N to 60S latitude and gravity data for the near side. A significant result from the Bistatic Radar Experiment in 1998 was that the data obtained from

Clementine indicated that there could be water in polar craters of the Moon. For more details go to the NSSDC Master Catalog, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 1994-004A.

Data from the Clementine Mission can be found on the NSSDC Master Catalog, including the Bistatic Radar Experiment.

3.2.3 Lunar Prospector

The Lunar Prospector was designed by NASA and Lockheed Martin for a low polar orbit investigation of the Moon. Its mission was to map surface composition and polar ice deposits, take measurements of magnetic and gravity fields, and study lunar outgassing events. The

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Lunar Prospector went into a near-circular 100 km altitude lunar polar orbit, then lowered to 40

km. The nominal mission ended after one year, and in the extended period the orbit was lowered to 30 km. On 31 July 1999 at 9:52:02 UT Lunar Prospector impacted the Moon near the south pole in a controlled crash to look for evidence of water ice – none was observed.

The Gamma Ray Spectrometer (GRS) and Neutron Spectrometer (NS) returned global data on elemental abundances, used to help understand the evolution of the lunar highland crust and the duration and extent of basaltic volcanism, and to assess lunar resources. The NS data will also locate any significant quantities of water ice which may exist in the permanently shadowed areas near the lunar poles.

The Magnetometer (MAG) and Electron Reflectometer (ER) returned data on the magnetic field of the lunar crust and the lunar induced magnetic dipole. These data will help provide an understanding of the origin of lunar paleomagnetism and the degree to which impacts can produce paleomagnetism and allow constraints on the size and composition of the lunar core (if there is one).

The Alpha Particle Spectrometer (APS) is being used to look for radon outgassing events on the lunar surface by detecting alpha particles from the radon gas itself and its decay product, polonium. Observations of the frequency and locations of the gas release events help characterize one possible source of the tenuous lunar atmosphere. Determination of the relationship of outgassing sites with crater age and tectonic features may be possible. This may in turn be used to characterize the current level of lunar tectonic activity.

The Doppler Gravity Experiment (DGE) uses Doppler tracking of S-Band radio signals to characterize the spacecraft orbit and determine the lunar gravity field. This data provides information on the lunar interior and, when combined with lunar topographic data, allow modelling of the global crustal asymmetry and structure, and any subsurface basin structure.

All the experiments can be found on the NSSDC Master Catalog, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 1998- 001A.

3.2.4 Kaguya

Kaguya (formerly SELENE, for SELenological and ENgineering Explorer), NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 2007-039A, was a Japanese Space Agency (JAXA) lunar orbiter mission. The primary objectives of the mission were a global survey of the Moon, obtaining data on elemental abundance, mineralogical composition, topography, geology, gravity, and the lunar and solar-terrestrial plasma environments, and to develop critical technologies for future lunar exploration by JAXA, such as lunar polar orbit injection, three-axis attitude stabilization, and thermal control.

The mission consisted of three satellites: an orbiter containing most of the scientific equipment, a VLBI (Very Long Baseline Interferometry) Radio (VRAD) satellite, and a relay satellite designed to receive a doppler ranging signal from the orbiter when it was out of direct contact with Earth, to estimate the far-side gravitational field.

The mission module carried 13 instruments for use in science investigations: a multi-band imager, terrain camera, high-definition TV camera, spectral profiler, x-ray spectrometer, gamma-

Effective Date: March 18, 2025 Page: 18 of 93 ray spectrometer, radar sounder, laser altimeter, magnetometer, plasma imager, charged particle spectrometer, plasma analyzer, and radio science equipment.

The VRAD (Very Long Baseline Interferometry Radio) subsatellite, Ouna (also designated Vstar), was an octagonal cylinder with a dipole antenna. It was spin-stabilized at 10 rpm with no propulsion units. It held one X-band and three S-band radio sources. The satellite in conjunction with the relay satellite enabled differential VLBI observations from the ground. Ouna was released from Kaguya October 12, 2007, in a 127 x 795 km polar orbit. Telemetry command was terminated on 29 June 2009. The orbit is assumed to have decayed and Ouna crashed into the lunar surface at an unknown time and location.

The relay subsatellite, Okina, was similar to the Ouna VRAD satellite, an octagonal cylinder with a dipole antenna. Okina also had four small S-band patch antennas mounted on it, two on top and two on bottom. The spacecraft was also spin-stabilized at 10 rpm with no propulsion units.

The relay subsatellite contained one X-band and three S-band VLBI radio sources and a transponder; it relayed the 4-way Doppler ranging signal between a ground station and the orbiter for the far side gravity field investigation from a 100 x 2400 km orbit. Okina impacted the Moon on 12 February 2009.

Kaguya (SELENE) launched on 14 September 2007 from Tanegashima Space Center. It made its first lunar orbit injection at on 3 October 2007 and entered a 101 x 11741 km lunar orbit. The spacecraft made 6 orbit-transfer maneuvers to lower the orbit to an 80 x 128 km polar science orbit by 19 October. During the transition to lower orbit, the relay satellite Okina was released into a 100 km x 2400 km polar orbit on 9 October at 00:36 UT and the VRAD satellite Ouna was released into a 100 x 800 km orbit on 12 October 2007.

Normal operations from orbit for the Kaguya spacecraft started on 20 October 2007, the 12-meter magnetometer mast, two 15-meter Radar Sounder dipole antennas, and the telescope gimbal were deployed between 28 and 31 October. Checkout of the subsatellites was completed by 5 November, check out of other instruments continued until the beginning of December. The 10-month nominal science mission began on 21 December 2007. The main orbiter maintained the near circular orbit for 10 months of science operations, using correction burns roughly every two months to maintain the orbit within 30 km of the 100 km nominal orbit.

The nominal mission was completed at the end of October 2008, with coverage of over 95% of the surface. The 100 km orbital observations were extended for 3 months. The altitude was then lowered to a 50 (±20) km orbit, operations from this orbit started on 1 February 2009. On 16 April the perilune altitude was reduced to 10-to-30 km.

Kaguya ended its mission as planned, impacting the Moon on 10 June 2009 at 18:25 UT (3:25 a.m. June 11 Japan Standard Time) near 80.4 degrees east longitude, 65.5 degrees south latitude on the Earth-facing side of the Moon. The area was in darkness at the time of the impact, allowing observation of the impact flash from Earth.

Kaguya is named for Kaguya-hime (Princess Kaguya), a visitor to Earth from the Moon in a tenth century Japanese folk tale “Taketori Monogatari” (The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter). The relay satellites, “Okina” and “Ouna” are named after the old man and woman who find and adopt Kaguya-hime.

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All the experiments can be found on the NSSDC Master Catalog.

3.2.5 LCROSS

The Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) was designed to search for water ice on the Moon’s surface by using a Centaur upper stage to impact with the Moon while observing the collision. The objective was to observe the resulting plume and to look for water or hydrated materials that would indicate water ice is present at or near the surface at the lunar poles. Initial analyses of the spectral data generated by LCROSS impact found water is present, even if only about one percent by mass, and later analyses increased that estimate to on the order of five percent.

The mission consisted of a Shepherding Spacecraft (S-S/C) attached to the Centaur upper stage. The S-S/C took images and collected other data on the impact and cloud of ejecta for approximately four minutes as it flew through it before also striking the Moon. The S-S/C was equipped with two visible cameras, three infrared cameras, three spectrometers, and a photometer for observations.

Experiments and resulting data are available on the NSSDC Master Catalog, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 2009-031B.

3.2.6 GRAIL

The Gravity Recovery And Interior Laboratory (GRAIL-A and GRAIL-B, NSSDCA/COSPAR IDs

2011-046A and 2011-046B) mission was a dual spacecraft project designed to study the lunar interior structure and the thermal evolution of the Moon. Several primary science objectives were to: map the structure of the crust and lithosphere; understand the Moon's asymmetric thermal evolution; determine the subsurface structure of impact basins and the origin of mascons (mass concentrations that affect the local gravitational pull), ascertain the temporal evolution of crustal brecciation and magmatism; constrain deep interior structure from tides; and place limits on the size of the possible inner core.

Refer to the NSSDC Master Catalog for all the experiments and resulting data.

3.2.7 Chandrayaan 1, 2, and 3

Chandrayaan 1, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 2008-052A, was an Indian Space Research

Organization (ISRO) mission designed to orbit the Moon over a two-year period with the objectives of upgrading and testing India's technological capabilities in space and returning scientific information on the lunar surface. Data was collected by star sensors, accelerometers, and an inertial reference unit. Telecommands were attained via S-band and science data transmission via X-band.

The scientific payload consisted of a Terrain Mapping Camera (TMC) used to produce a high-resolution map of the Moon, a Hyper Spectral Imager (HySI) to perform mineralogical mapping, a Lunar Laser Ranging Instrument (LLRI) to determine the surface topography, and an X-ray

Effective Date: March 18, 2025 Page: 20 of 93 fluorescence spectrometer containing three components: an Imaging X-ray Spectrometer

(CIXS), a High Energy X-ray/gamma ray spectrometer (HEX), and a Solar X-ray Monitor (SXM) to detect solar flux. CIXS was used to map Si, Al, Mg, Ca, Fe, and Ti at the surface, while the

HEX measured U, Th, 210Pb, 222Rn degassing, and other radioactive elements, and the SXM monitored the solar flux to normalize the results of CIXS and HEX.

Additional instruments included the Sub-keV Atom Reflecting Analyzer (SARA), a Moon

Mineralogy Mapper (M3) and a near-infrared spectrometer (SIR-2) to also map the mineral composition using an infrared grating spectrometer. A Miniature Synthetic Aperture Radar (Mini-

SAR) performed radar scattering and imaging investigations at the poles in a search for water ice. The Radiation Dose Monitor (RADOM-7) characterized the local radiation environment.

Chandrayaan 1 carried a Moon Impact Probe (MIP) that was released from the spacecraft and hit the lunar surface in late 2008. The MIP carried a video camera, a radar altimeter, and a mass spectrometer.

Chandrayaan 1 Mini-RF (Part of the broader NASA LRO mission) and Mini-SAR experiment descriptions and resulting data are available on the NSSDC Master Catalog.

Chandrayaan 2 was comprised of an orbiting propulsion module and a soft lander carrying a rover. The primary objective was to demonstrate the ability to soft-land on the lunar surface and operate a robotic rover, a 6-wheeled vehicle based on the NASA Sojourner Rover. Scientific goals included studies of lunar topography, mineralogy, elemental abundance, the lunar exosphere, and signatures of hydroxyl and water ice. On September 6, 2019, the lander crashed on the surface in one piece, but communications and operations were not possible. The orbiter was designed for a mission life of one year and continues to operate as a relay satellite.

No data from Chandrayaan 2 is publicly available at the time of this publication; see

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID 2019-042A.

Chandrayaan 3 successfully completed the mission initially set for Chandrayaan 2. It put a lander and rover in the highlands near the south pole of the Moon on August 23, 2023, and demonstrated end-to-end landing and…