2011_PACN_water_quality_protocol_narrative.pdf

National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior

Natural Resource Stewardship and Science

Water Quality Vital Signs Monitoring Protocol for the Pacific Island Network Volume 1. Report Narrative Version 1.0 Natural Resource Report NPS/PACN/NRR—2011/418

ON THE COVER

Vessel slightly too close to land.

Photograph: Anne Brasher, USGS-WRD

Water Quality Vital Signs Monitoring Protocol for the Pacific Island Network Volume 1. Report Narrative Version 1.0 Natural Resource Report NPS/ PACN/NRR—2011/418

Tahzay Jones, Kimber DeVerse, Gordon Dicus, Danielle McKay, Anne Farahi, Kelly Kozar, and Eric Brown

National Park Service Pacific Island Inventory and Monitoring Network Hawaii Volcanoes National Park PO Box 52 Hawaii National Park, Hawaii 96718 November 2010

U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service Pacific West Regional Office Oakland, California

June 2011

U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service Natural Resource Stewardship and Science Fort Collins, Colorado ii

The National Park Service, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science office in Fort Collins, Colorado publishes a range of reports that address natural resource topics of interest and applicability to a broad audience in the National Park Service and others in natural resource management, including scientists, conservation and environmental constituencies, and the public.

The Natural Resource Report Series is used to disseminate high-priority, current natural resource management information with managerial application. The series targets a general, diverse audience, and may contain NPS policy considerations or address sensitive issues of management applicability.

All manuscripts in the series receive the appropriate level of peer review to ensure that the information is scientifically credible, technically accurate, appropriately written for the intended audience, and designed and published in a professional manner. This report received formal, high-level peer review based on the importance of its content, or its potentially controversial or precedent-setting nature. Peer review was conducted by highly qualified individuals with subject area technical expertise and was overseen by a peer review manager.

Views, statements, findings, conclusions, recommendations, and data in this report do not necessarily reflect views and policies of the National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the U.S. Government.

This report is available from the Pacific Island I&M Network website (http://www.nature.nps.gov/im/units/pacn/) and the Natural Resource Publications Management website (http://www.nature.nps.gov/publications/nrpm/).

Please cite this publication as:

Jones, T., K. DeVerse, G. Dicus, D. McKay, A. Farahi, K. Kozar, and E. Brown. 2011. Water quality vital signs monitoring protocol for the Pacific Island Network:Volume 1; Version 1.0.

Natural Resource Report NPS/PACN/NRR—2011/418. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

NPS 988/108127, June 2011 http://www.nature.nps.gov/im/units/pacn/� http://www.nature.nps.gov/publications/nrpm/� iii

Contents Page

Figures.......................................................................................................................................... viii

Tables ............................................................................................................................................. xi

Appendixes .................................................................................................................................. xiii

Standard Operating Procedures..................................................................................................... xv

Acronym List for Water Quality Vital Sign Protocol Narrative ................................................. xvii

Executive Summary ..................................................................................................................... xix

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... xxi

1 - Background and Objectives

1.1 Location

1.2 Threats and Concerns

1.3 Potential PACN Management Implications

1.4 Conceptual Models

1.4.1 Water Quality

1.4.2 Drivers and Stressors

1.4.3 Ecosystem Responses and Measures of Change

1.5 Other Monitoring Efforts Past and Present

1.6 Parks Where Protocol Will be Implemented

1.7 Vital Signs Objectives

1.8 Monitoring Objectives

1.8.1 Monitoring Questions and Objectives to be Addressed by the Water Quality Protocol

2 - Sampling Design

2.1 Background

2.2 General Considerations

iv

Contents (continued) Page

2.2.1 Maximizing Personnel Safety

2.2.2 Sample Number

2.2.3 Spatial Coverage

2.3.4 Logistical Constraints

2.3.5 Fiscal Constraints

2.3.6 State, Territorial, and Commonwealth Water Quality Compliance Criteria

2.3.7 Integration with Other Vital Signs

2.4 Basic Parameters

2.4.1 Target Population

2.4.2 Sampling Frame

2.4.3 Representativeness

2.4.4 Sampling Units

2.5 Statistical Evaluation of Existing Data Sets

2.5.1 Annual Precision

2.5.2 Existing Estimates of Expected Variation

2.5.3 Proportion of Fixed Versus Random Panels (Transects)

2.5.4 Statistical Power Estimation

2.6 Targeted Detection Level

2.7 Rationale for Sampling Design

2.8 Establishing Sampling Stations (Spatial Design)

2.8.1 Sample Site Selection Process

2.9 Sampling Frequency (Temporal Design) Panel Description

3 - Field Methods v

Page

3.1 Field Preparations, Field Schedule and Equipment Setup

3.2 Conducting the Field Sampling

3.2.1 General Sampling Strategy

3.2.2 Park Specific Sampling

3.2.3 Options

3.2.4 Chronological Integration of Surveys

3.2.5 Process of Sampling

3.3 After the Field Procedures

3.4 Permitting and Compliance

4 - Data Handling, Analysis, and Reporting

4.1 Project Information Management Overview

4.2 Pre-season Preparations for Information Management

4.2.1 Set Up of Project Workspace

4.2.2 GPS Loading and Preparation

4.2.3 Implementation of Working Database Copy

4.3 Overview of Database Design

4.4 Data Entry and Processing

4.4.1 Regular Data Backups

4.4.2 Data Verification

4.4.3 Field Form Handling Procedures

4.4.4 Image Handling Procedures

4.4.5 GPS Data Procedures

4.5 Data Quality Review

vi

4.5.1 Data Edits After Certification

Contents (continued) Page

4.5.2 Geospatial Data

4.6 Metadata Procedures

4.7 Data Certification and Delivery

4.8 Data Analysis

4.8.1 Analytical Approach

4.8.2 Status and Trend Analyses

4.8.3 Analysis and Reporting Strategy

4.9 Reporting and Product Development

4.9.1 Report Types

4.9.2 Standard Report Format

4.9.3 Adaptive Management of Vital Signs Monitoring

4.9.4 Review Products for Sensitive Information

4.10 Product Delivery, Posting and Distribution

4.10.1 STORET

4.10.2 Holding Period for Project Data

4.10.3 Special Procedures for Sensitive Information

4.11 Archival and Records Management

4.12 Season Close-out

5 - Personnel Requirements and Training

5.1 Roles and Responsibilities

5.1.1 Project Lead (PL)

5.1.2 Park Lead

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Page

5.1.3 Aquatic Biological Technician

5.1.4 Park-based NPS Staff

5.1.5 PACN Data Manager

5.1.6 PACN GIS Specialist

5.1.7 PACN Program Manager

5.2 Qualifications and Training

6 - Operational Requirements

6.1 Pre-Monitoring Documents

6.2 Annual Workload and Field Schedule

6.3 Facilities and Equipment

6.4 Start-up Costs

6.5 Annual Budget

7 - Literature Cited viii

Figures Page

Figure 1. Map showing the geographical region of the 11 Pacific Island Network park units

Figure 2. Managerial influences relative to select aquatic resource stressors and their interactions

Figure 3. Natural pathways and sources of water quality contamination on a generalized Pacific island

Figure 4. Examples of point and non-point source pollution found within the Pacific islands along with the associated types of pollution each source contributes to overall water quality

Figure 5. Schematic of groundwater and surface water movement on volcanic islands, illustrating pollution pathways

(modified from Anthony et al. 2004)

Figure 6. Some water quality parameters (trapezoids) and their linkages to the ecosystem (ovals). Less significant conduits are drawn with dotted arrows

Figure 7. Duration, intensity, and ecosystem recovery time for water quality changes

Figure 8. Duration of water quality changes and their effects at differing hierarchical ecosystem levels

Figure 9. Whole ecosystem linkages in the PACN water quality model and their measures

Figure 10. Generalized sampling frame representations for safely accessible marine waters showing park boundaries, sample sites, and unsafe areas

Figure 11. PACN Inventory & Monitoring Program’s three-pronged approach to water quality vital sign monitoring

Figure 12. Freshwater sampling process

Figure 13. Marine sampling process

Figure 14. Anchialine pool sampling process

Figure 15. Wetland sampling process ix

Figures (continued) Page

Figure 16. Idealized flow diagram of the cyclical stages of project information management, from pre-season preparation to season close-out

Figure 17. Data flow diagram for water quality data xi

Tables Page

Table 1. General monitoring objectives, and specific vital signs of the PACN I&M Program for which this water quality monitoring protocol will provide information to help interpret results and significance

Table 2. Cyclical variation of network core parameters for water quality may occur daily, seasonally, episodically, or due to anthropogenic influences

Table 3. Coastal and anchialine pool precision estimates for water quality parameters based on 10 years of data from NELHA (1996–2005)

Table 4. Estimated annual relative precision based on the sampling regime outline in this protocol using an n of 32

Table 5. Monthly correlations (r) of water quality parameters at KAHO and NPSA sampling sites in 2005

Table 6. Statistical power for a one-tailed F distribution at α = 0.05 and α = 0.10 for detecting relative changes of 10%, 25%, and 50% in selected water quality parameters in anchialine pools and marine sites

Table 7. Sample size and power output of t-test calculations based on WRD recommended online calculator

Table 8. Theoretical one year panel survey schedule for the mixed panel design with 4 permanent/fixed panels and 4 rotating panels

Table 9. PACN Inventory & Monitoring Program’s Current Proposed Aquatic Sampling schedule in relation to Water Quality Vital signs monitoring

Table 10. Quarterly sampling strategy for all PACN parks each quarter, including measurement parameters and total number of samples at each site

Table 11. Functional comparison of the master project database and the working database

Table 12. Approaches to analyzing water quality Vital signs data

Table 13. Schedule for recurring reporting to NPS management

Table 14. Roles and responsibilities for the PACN Water Quality Monitoring Protocol

Table 15. Annual (fiscal year) schedule of monitoring activity benchmarks, with responsible individual(s) identified xii

Tables (continued) Page

Table 16. Start-up PACN costs for the aquatic biological technician

Table 17. Annual itemized expenses for the Water Quality monitoring protocol by park xiii

Appendixes The appendixes to this report are found in two volumes:

• Water Quality Vital Signs Monitoring Protocol for the Pacific Island Network:

Appendixes

• Water Quality Vital Signs Monitoring Protocol for the Pacific Island Network. Appendix N: Water Quality Monitoring Database User Guide.

Appendix A. Park Background Information for Current Strategic Plans

Appendix B. Revision History Log

Appendix C. Permits and Permission

Appendix D. Sampling Frame

Appendix E. Field Data Form

Appendix F. Water Quality Research Within and Adjacent to Pacific Island Network Park Boundaries

Appendix G. GPRA Goals Addressed by the PACN Water Quality Protocol

Appendix H. State, Territorial, and Commonwealth Water Quality Criteria

Appendix I. State, Regional, and Commonwealth 303(d) Listed Waters

Appendix J. Personnel Names and Contact Information

Appendix K. Roles and Responsibilities

Appendix L. Yearly Project Task List

Appendix M. Database Documentation

Appendix N. Water Quality Database User’s Guide xv

Standard Operating Procedures

The appendixes to this report are found in the volume Water Quality Vital Signs Monitoring Protocol for the Pacific Island Network: Standard Operating Procedures.

SOP 1. General Preparations for Field Work

SOP 2. Training Technicians

SOP 3. Safety Protocol

SOP 4. Using Garmin Global Positioning Systems (GPS) Units

SOP 5. Pre-Sampling Equipment Preparation

SOP 6. Selecting Water Quality Sampling Stations

SOP 7. Conducting Water Quality Sampling

SOP 8. Post-Field Work Procedures and Equipment Maintenance

SOP 9. Quality Assurance Project Plan

SOP 10. Workspace setup and Project Records Management

SOP 11. Field Form Handling Procedures

SOP 12. Managing Photographic Images

SOP 13. Data Entry and Verification

SOP 14. Post-season Data Quality Review and Certification

SOP 15. Metadata Development

SOP 16. Sensitive Information Procedures

SOP 17. Product Delivery Specifications

SOP 18. Product Posting and Distribution

SOP 19. Data Analysis and Reporting

SOP 20. Revising the Protocol xvii

Acronym List for Water Quality Vital Sign Protocol Narrative

ALKA: Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail (West Hawaii) AMME: American Memorial Park (Saipan, CMNI)

ASEPA: American Samoa Environmental Protection Agency CNMI: Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands COLA: cost-of-living adjustment CV: coefficient of variation CWA: Clean Water Act DO: dissolved oxygen DOH: Department of Health EMAP: Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program FGDC: Federal Geographic Data Committee FOIA: Freedom of Information Act FTE: full-time equivalent GIS: geographic information system GPRA: Government Performance and Results Act GPS: global positioning system GRTS: generalized random tessellation stratified HALE: Haleakala National Park (Maui) HAVO: Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (East Hawaii) HPI-CESU: Hawaii-Pacific Islands Cooperative Ecosystems Studies Unit I&M: Inventory and Monitoring KAHO: Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park (West Hawaii) KALA: Kalaupapa National Historical Park (Molokai) NELHA: Natural Energy Lab of Hawaii Authority NHP: National Historical Park NO3: Nitrate

NPS: National Parks Service NPSA: National Park of American Samoa (American Samoa) NPS-WRD: National Parks Service-Water Resources Division NRC: Natural Resource Challenge NRTR: Natural Resource Technical Report ONRW: outstanding natural resource waters PACN: Pacific Island Network PCBs: polychlorinated biphenyls PICRP: NPS Pacific Island Coral Reef Program PL: project lead PUHE: Pu’ukohola Heiau National Historical Site (West Hawaii) PUHO: Pu’uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park (West Hawaii) QA: quality assurance QC: quality control SOP: standard operating procedure SQL: structured query language TDN: total dissolved nitrogen TDP: total dissolved phosphate TN: total nitrogen TP: total phosphate USAR: USS Arizona Memorial (Oahu) USEPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency USGS: United States Geological Survey USGS-WRD: United States Geological Survey-Water Resources Division VIP: Volunteers-in-Parks WAPA: War in the Pacific National Historical Park (Guam) WQS: water quality standards xix

Executive Summary

Water resources in the Pacific Island Network (PACN) support rich and diverse ecosystems and aquatic communities that include corals reefs, anchialine pools communities (endemic to Hawaii), and freshwater stream communities. These water resources span a range of conditions from pristine to highly impaired water bodies. Both point and non-point sources impact the waters of many of our network parks at various locations (DeVerse and DiDonato 2006) to varying degrees. Aquatic resource protection is required by all the governments of the PACN, and water quality is widely used as an indicator of aquatic resource condition by regulators and ecologists. The United States Clean Water Act (CWA) of 1977 requires States and Territories to promulgate legally enforceable water quality standards (WQS) and lists of waters not currently meeting or expected to meet the standards. This protocol should provide the parks with some of the summary information necessary to determine their compliance with the applicable WQS in addition to providing correlative environmental data to ecologists. The water quality vital sign is closely linked with the benthic marine community, marine fish, groundwater, and freshwater animal communities vital signs, and monitoring efforts will be conducted in parallel to maximize data value.

The water quality protocol will be implemented in all PACN parks. This protocol provides the methodology for addressing two monitoring questions: 1) What are the ranges and variances of the network water quality parameters within selected water bodies? 2) What are the temporal and spatial trends of the network core water quality parameters for individual water bodies or water resource types in each park? The first question has the objective to determine the range and spatial variance on an annual basis of temperature, pH, conductivity/salinity, dissolved oxygen (DO), turbidity, total dissolved nitrogen (TDN), total dissolved phosphorous (TDP), Nitrate (NO3), and chlorophyll in coastal marine waters, streams, wetlands, and a saline lake in the 11 PACN parks. The second question has the objective of determining the temporal (events, diurnal, seasonal, annual, decadal) and spatial trends, for the temperature, pH, conductivity/salinity, and dissolved oxygen in coastal marine waters, streams, and wetlands in the 11 PACN parks.

This protocol employs a split panel design with eight fixed and random sites sampled quarterly along with two extended deployment sondes collecting physical parameters seasonally (wet and dry seasons) in each monitored park water resource. This design provides for the ability to provide both status and trend information. This design also statistically increases the power to detect change over time, resulting from the ability to conduct parameter corrections based on repeat analysis. In addition, the utilization of extended deployment sondes maximizes the ability to use data to conduct trend analyses. This sampling regime represents the maximum sustainable effort given current fiscal realities for the I&M water quality monitoring program only. Increased sampling is possible with more assistance from parks, in addition to partnering with other federal, state, territorial, or local water quality monitoring programs, including interested and reliable non-governmental and private organizations.

Personnel requirements for this vital signs monitoring effort identify a team approach from a variety of organizational levels. Individual park staff provides some in-park coordination for field efforts while the PACN Aquatic Ecologist serves as the project lead and supervises a Biological Technician. The PACN Aquatic Ecologist is the primary park-based liaison ensuring xx this vital signs monitoring effort continues to address park management needs. The Biological Technician assists the Aquatic Ecologist in coordination efforts and is responsible for pre- and post- season preparations, assisting each park with field work, and conducting the bulk of initial data management, quality assurance, and analysis. The PACN Aquatic Ecologist and other PACN staff help facilitate vital sign monitoring operations, ensure database management, conduct detailed status and trend analyses and reporting, and provide other reporting and operational assistance at a network and national level.

The complete Water Quality Vital signs Monitoring Protocol consists of this narrative and additional volumes containing appendixes and standard operating procedures. Any changes in this narrative will be logged in the revision history log found in Appendix B. This protocol shall not be altered for the sole purpose of becoming compatible with a short-term (20 years or less) state or regional water quality monitoring program.

xxi

Acknowledgements

This vital signs monitoring protocol and associated Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) were prepared with assistance from the Hawaii-Pacific Islands Cooperative Ecosystems Studies Unit (HPI-CESU) and NPS Pacific Island Coral Reef Program (PICRP). It would also not have been possible without the willing support of park-based staff including Stephen Anderson, Elizabeth Gordon, Dwayne Minton, Sarah Creachbaum, Jenny Drake, Tammy Duchesne, Peter Craig, Paul Brown, Epi Suafoa, Lina Fuamatu, Fale Tuilagi, Risé Hart, Sallie Beavers, Lisa Marrick, Rebecca Most, Malia Laber, and Chuck Sayon.

1 - Background and Objectives

The Natural Resource Challenge (NRC), initiated in 1999 under the auspices of the Omnibus Act (1998), an action plan for preserving natural resources throughout the National Park Service (NPS). To meet the goals of the NRC, the NPS established 32 Inventory and Monitoring (I&M) networks, including 270 National Park units, to better economize their funding. Each network is comprised of NPS units that share geographical and natural resource characteristics, allowing these parks to share financial resources and expertise (NPS 2006a). The Inventory and Monitoring Program’s first objective was to complete basic inventories of natural resources in all parks. This information formed the baseline information for long-term monitoring efforts.

Because program funding is limited and not everything within park ecosystems can be monitored, monitoring programs were built around measuring critical parameters (vital signs) within each network in order to gauge ecosystem health. The information gained by monitoring will be used for natural resource management decision-making.

As defined by the NPS, vital signs are a subset of physical, chemical, and biological elements and processes of park ecosystems that are selected to represent the overall health or condition of park resources, known or hypothesized effects of stressors, or elements that have important human values. This subset of monitored resources and processes is part of the total suite of natural resources that park managers are directed to preserve “unimpaired for future generations” (National Park Service Organic Act of 1916), including water, air, geological resources, plants and animals, and the various ecological, biological, and physical processes that act on those resources.” Major challenges addressed in the NRC pertinent to aquatic environments include native and endangered species, non-native species, environmental stewardship, and water quality. The PACN Vital Signs Monitoring Plan and this protocol address these issues.

Water quality monitoring is widely used as an indicator of aquatic resource condition by regulators and ecologists and will contribute to Pacific Island Network (PACN) parks’ ability to realize goals pertaining to the Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA). Not all PACN parks have GPRA goals specifically relating to water quality, yet, many parks value access to water quality information and better managed aquatic habitats (specific GPRA goals for each PACN park are listed in Appendix G of this protocol, along with an explanation of how water quality monitoring will assist parks in attaining these goals). Examples of how water quality monitoring relates to PACN parks’ GPRA goals and strategic plans include: wetland habitat restoration and management, recreational opportunities in and around aquatic resources, protected habitat for federally listed endangered or threatened aquatic species, compliance with WQS and associated habitat protection, and preservation/restoration of cultural resources such as Hawaiian fishponds. In addition to GPRA goals, legislation requiring specific water quality standards has been created by all of the government entities encompassing the PACN.

The most significant legislation applicable to water quality is the United States Clean Water Act (CWA) of 1977. The CWA requires States and Territories to identify and publish water quality standards (WQS) as well as identify waters that do not currently meet or are not expected to meet the adopted standards. The resulting Federal, State, Territorial, and Commonwealth regulations on water quality standards provide a framework for designating and protecting water bodies for specific uses (Guam Environmental Protection Agency 2001, Commonwealth of the Northern

Mariana Islands Department of Environmental Quality 2004, American Samoa Environmental Protection Agency 1999, State of Hawaii Department of Health 2004). These WQS include numeric criteria for fresh and marine water bodies. The legislation for each region covers other water resources mandating protection from pollution and degradation although numeric criteria are not available. Guam and CNMI include protection of groundwater resources in their regulations and wetlands are specifically addressed in the CNMI WQS. In the absence of national water quality criteria for marine waters, we will follow those of the State of Hawaii Department of Health (DOH).

1.1 Location

The PACN is comprised of 11 National Park units (Appendix A, Appendix D) spread across the tropical Pacific Ocean between 25oN and 20oS latitude (Figure 1). These units are all coastally located on relatively small islands and governed by four different entities; the Territory of Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), the Territory of American Samoa, and the State of Hawaii. These Pacific island entities are made up of relatively small and physically disconnected island communities. The individual islands of the PACN all share a tropical climate, remote location, and significant influence from indigenous cultures, but vary widely within these attributes. Variations in natural (precipitation, topography) and human (demographics, industry) factors combine differently in each locale; however, the quality of surface waters, marine waters, and groundwater is critical to the functioning of both aquatic and terrestrial systems across the network.

1.2 Threats and Concerns

Water resources in all national park units span a range of conditions from pristine to highly impaired water bodies. Both point and non-point sources impact the waters at various locations (DeVerse and DiDonato 2006). Network-wide concerns for these resources include atmospheric deposition, changes in hydrology and climate, chemical and microbial contamination, organic and inorganic enrichment, invasive species, erosion, and sedimentation. Almost all PACN parks are susceptible to the effects of feral animals that degrade native vegetation and increase erosion.

Natural disturbance events contribute to the transfer of sediment and chemicals from land into nearby streams, groundwater, and marine resources. Solar radiation and ambient temperature affect water quantity and quality, and as a result, the well-being of organisms living in impacted areas (Sutherland et al. 2004).

Unfortunately, many of the drivers which impact the water quality of parks within the PACN take place outside of park jurisdictional boundaries. Most, if not all, PACN parks are concerned about development of adjacent lands and watersheds. Expansion of urban land use often affects the hydrology of nearby ecosystems by diversion of streams and withdrawal of groundwater (USGS-WRD 2003). Human population growth contributes to loss of habitat buffers and subsequent degradation of water quality. Construction and recreation activities contribute to erosion, pollution, and the introduction of alien species. Chemicals from land-based sources enter groundwater via surface water connections possibly contaminating drinking water supplies and eventually coastal resources (De Carlo et al. 2000).

Adjacent land uses have impacts on the marine environment as well (Houk 2001, Sutherland et

al. 2004), and all PACN parks have nearshore reef communities that may be influenced by situations inside or outside of park boundaries. Moreover, PACN parks do not have jurisdiction over the submerged lands containing reef resources that they are mandated to protect (that responsibility belongs to the state or territory).

Figure 1. Map showing the geographical region of the 11 Pacific Island Network park units. The PACN covers a large geographical area in the Tropical Pacific Ocean and is governed by four different entities;

the Territory of Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), the Territory of American Samoa, and the State of Hawaii.

Harbor operations, such as boat maintenance and fueling facilities contribute to chemical pollution in these areas by increasing the presence of paints, solvents, diesel, oils, and heavy metals. The operation of cruise ships, commercial fishing, and diving charters raises the likelihood of illegal dumping of chemicals, sewage, and debris. Three of the west Hawaii parks, PUHE, KAHO, and ALKA, are adjacent to state harbors that are in the planning stages for expansion which may intensify threats to the marine community such as fishing pressure, introduction of alien algae and invertebrates, boat groundings, and other physical damage to reef resources from increased recreational activities. Runoff from agricultural and urban development and sedimentation due to natural and anthropogenic causes increases eutrophication, bacterial and chemical contamination, and turbidity (Fabricius 2005).

Rising sea levels and storm surge may accelerate shoreline erosion resulting in increased sedimentation of reefs and changes in coastal habitat. Natural impacts include island subsidence and rising sea level, which will ultimately contribute to erosion of the shoreline at many PACN parks. Coral bleaching, mortality, and disease also are occurring due to warming sea surface temperatures, sedimentation, and water pollution (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999, Craig and Basch 2001, Houk 2001, Sutherland et al. 2004). Through surveys of NPS staff, partners, and other media, each park has identified the stressors which most threaten their water resources. Listed below are brief summaries of water resources and issues within each of the PACN parks.

• War in the Pacific National Historical Park (WAPA) contains over 1,000 acres of marine area, a wetland, and numerous streams within the park. Sedimentation, intense fishing, sewage, litter, and the presence of relic WWII military equipment, including large numbers of unexploded ordinance are some of the water quality concerns for this park.

• American Memorial Park (AMME) has no submerged lands, but contains an extensive wetland with native mangroves. In addition to threats associated with terrestrial runoff, areas offshore of AMME may be impacted by contaminants from a closed landfill adjacent to the park. The wetland area has been severely impacted by historical land uses.

Sea level rise is also a concern to this low-lying park.

• National Park of American Samoa (NPSA) contains extensive coral reefs and pristine streams that may be impacted by rapid population growth in the region. Water quality at NPSA is affected by non-point source pollution, groundwater withdrawal, bacteria, and nutrients from human and animal wastes as well as other contaminants. Global climate change and the subsequent increase in water temperature are also of concern.

• USS Arizona Memorial Park National Memorial (USAR) consists of a visitor center, a parking lot, and joint jurisdiction with the US Navy over two submerged vessels: the USS Arizona and the USS Utah. This jurisdiction does not extend to the surrounding marine area of Pearl Harbor, which is a heavily altered embayment due to extensive and long-standing Naval operations and increasing urban development. There are several hundred thousand gallons of Bunker C fuel oil encased in the hull of the USS Arizona with catastrophic potential if released.

• Kalaupapa National Historical Park (KALA) legislative boundary extends a quarter mile offshore, and encompasses relatively pristine marine resources and two offshore islands. Threatened and endangered sea turtles forage within the park, and endangered monk seals use the beaches. Coral reefs are threatened by sedimentation and agricultural runoff. The primary concerns for freshwater resources of this park are invasive species, erosion, and diversion of streams to supply upland development. This park boasts a crater lake with unique water quality characteristics.

• Haleakala National Park (HALE) boundary ends at the high tide line but has extensive and somewhat isolated intertidal regions, coastal springs, lakes, bogs, and pristine isolated streams. Stream diversion, invasive species, erosion, and encroaching development are the main impacts to water quality in this park.

• Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail (ALKA) is a 175 mile trail corridor traversing the west Hawaii coast from the northern Upolu Point south to Ka Lae, and continuing up the eastern side of Hawaii Island through Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. The water quality issues for ALKA vary with the changing land uses on Hawaii Island. Although this trail system does not technically include the nearshore marine areas, harbor operations, runoff, and groundwater quality are concerns for the coastal waters in developed areas.

• Puukohola Heiau National Historic Site (PUHE) administrative boundary stops at the high tide line, although the enabling legislation intended that it extend into the marine area of Pelekane Bay. The park has an ephemeral brackish water pond located in an otherwise dry gulch that is impacted by flood events during periods of high rainfall upslope. Upland development and ranching contribute to erosion, runoff and associated sedimentation of Pelekane Bay. Consequently, this bay is now listed as an impaired water body by the Hawaii Department of Health. Kawaihae Harbor is adjacent to the park and is slated for expansion which may increase nearshore sedimentation and restrict water flow.

• Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park (KAHO) contains approximately 10% of the anchialine pools on Hawaii Island. In addition, there are three fish ponds, and a large embayment down-slope of a growing industrial area. Adjacent land use may contribute to contamination and nutrient loading of the groundwater that feeds the wetlands, anchialine pools, and subsequently the marine waters. These aquatic resources are affected ecologically when introduced species alter the environment. A small boat harbor is located south of the park and is a source of petroleum, heavy metals, and other contaminants. The threat of sedimentation onto the coral reef is increased by pond restoration activities, erosion of the sandy shoreline, and dredging and/or future expansion of the harbor. Upslope development and groundwater uptake are also threats to this coastal park. Unfortunately, KAHO administers the marine area but does not have “law enforcement jurisdiction” over the marine resources.

• Puuhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park (PUHO) boundary ends at the high tide line. Urban development up-slope from the park and the high level of tourism can have an impact on the water quality (sediment, nutrients, and contaminants) of springs, fishponds, anchialine pools, and the nearshore marine environment. Sedimentation and the introduction of alien fish in the fishponds and anchialine pools have contributed to their decline. Island subsidence and the rising sea level, due to global climate change, may eventually lead to flooding in this low coastal park.

• Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (HAVO) boundary ends at the high tide line, limiting its aquatic resources to coastal intertidal areas, anchialine pools, and bogs in the upland rainforest. No known streams or lakes exist in this park, which is primarily made up of relatively young volcanic flows. Although the coastal area is large, the threat of runoff from paved areas is limited by the volcanic activity, the main agent of change in this park.

1.3 Potential PACN Management Implications

When a specified water quality parameter exceeds federal, state, local, territorial, or commonwealth water criteria, a trigger point for management action has been reached (Appendix

H). This means that water resources are no longer in compliance with relevant water quality standards. It is up to the managers to decide whether they want to pursue an action, delay, or ignore. This is a point we want to avoid, and monitoring water quality for declining trends informs managers, enhancing their ability to avert this situation prior to having to answer questions as to why their resource is impaired; a fear of all NPS managers/superintendents. Any significant trend in water quality parameter decline should be a trigger for informing management of the declining situation. Nevertheless, because issues may be of a larger scale than park management can deal with, options for management are often limited. Nevertheless, knowing system linkages is imperative to making informed management decisions to avoid, avert, or improve declining resource status.

A monitoring program for marine, freshwater, and brackish water resources will provide a system-wide understanding of the current status of water resources allowing prioritization and improved management of threatened resources. Once problem areas are identified, park management can begin the process of prioritization necessary to address park resource needs.

Scientific information can be used to guide rational and responsible management actions and policies relating to the environment and should be readily available for resource managers to identify stressors and potential causes of change.

Understanding the system linkages affecting water quality, and subsequent trend information gathered through monitoring, will aid NPS park managers in their ability to target potential problem areas that can be addressed using their managerial influences (Figure 2), within and external to park jurisdictional boundaries. Results from monitoring will inform management decisions at differing scales; global, regional, or park. Stressors originating within park boundaries can be addressed through direct management action; stressors originating outside park boundaries may need to be addressed through indirect means, such as influencing other jurisdictional agencies and decision makers through partnerships or commenting on proposed development activities. Regardless of the chosen management action, the NPS will have scientifically credible monitoring results available to inform the public, upper management, legislators, and international communities about their concerns and recommendations.

1.4 Conceptual Models

Conceptual models are used to better understand the context of a given vital sign. The I&M Program uses two general types of conceptual models: stressor models and control models (Gross 2003). Stressor models help to identify the relationships between stressors (drivers), ecosystem components, and effects. However, these models do not typically incorporate the actual mechanisms of the interactions; instead, they are generally descriptive and retrospective.

In contrast, control models represent key processes, interactions, and feedbacks (Gross 2003). In the context of PACN protocols, control models are likely to serve as a stronger foundation for understanding the mechanistic functioning of the ecosystem.

Figure 2. Managerial influences relative to select aquatic resource stressors and their interactions. The managerial influence is indicated in green. Boxes within the green may be directly influenced by park management decisions. Boxes in the grey area must be influenced by other means. Colored boxes indicate stressors, orange circles indicate the aquatic resource component, and arrows indicate linkages.

Please note these are not all stressors or linkages.

1.4.1 Water Quality

From the tops of the mountains to the ocean floor, water plays a significant role in defining the physical, chemical, and biological components of an ecosystem. On Pacific islands, freshwater enters the ecosystem initially through rain, snow, or fog (primarily rain). The water then either infiltrates the ground or runs off the land and into streams or the ocean. Infiltrated water recharges aquifers and travels as groundwater through the rocks, eventually resurfacing in streams or discharging into the ocean, where oceanic currents then move the water and associated physical and chemical components. Water reenters the atmosphere through evapotranspiration and the process repeats. The potential for extraneous organic and inorganic inputs exist at each point along the progression of water from rain to sea, altering the water quality and characteristics with each input (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Natural pathways and sources of water quality contamination on a generalized Pacific island (HaySmith et al. 2006).

The water quality and characteristics associated with each watershed are altered significantly by the chemical, biological, and land use practices found within. Anthropogenic and natural changes through point and non-point source inputs to the watershed, alter water quality by changing physical, chemical, and/or biological components and quantities entering the water supply. Point source inputs are those that can be traced to a specific area such as a sewage pipe or industrial dump site, while non-point source inputs like agricultural run-off or animal droppings provide inputs over large areas (Figure 4).

Urban and agricultural development of adjacent lands and watersheds affect almost all PACN parks. Human population growth contributes to loss of habitat buffers and subsequent degradation of water quality. Alteration of watersheds and associated changes in vegetative cover often decrease the ability of the land to absorb rainfall resulting in increased runoff.

Generally, runoff from developed watersheds carries higher sediment loads than from undeveloped areas, and this effect is more pronounced in areas where the topography is characterized by steep slopes.

Water from urban and agricultural development absorbed into the groundwater contains increased chemical and microbial contaminants as compared to native systems, eventually discharging into coastal resources such as anchialine pools, nearshore coral reefs, and wetlands.

Figure 5 illustrates groundwater and surface water movement on volcanic islands, as well as sources and pathways of pollutant movement.

Figure 4. Examples of point and non-point source pollution found within the Pacific islands along with the associated types of pollution each source contributes to overall water quality (Deverse and Didonato 2006).

From incidental chemical inputs to habitat modification, all alterations to water quality have some effect on the ecosystem (Figure 6), and the greatest concerns are the intensity and length of time that a stressor is present in the system. High intensity stressors can cause significant, immediately recognizable changes (i.e. an oil spill) while low intensity stressors can take years to identify (i.e. climate change). The longer a stressor is present (i.e. slow removal of oil from a spill), the greater the impact to the organisms that inhabit the ecosystem, and the longer their recovery time. In addition, the greater the effect a stressor has on the ecosystem as a whole, the longer the recovery time (Figure 7). For instance, increased acidification may destabilize geologic formations, increase erosion, and release trace metals and other contaminants into the watershed. Unfortunately, water quality stressors tend to be chronic and of low intensity making them difficult to detect; and the consequent recovery of a system also slow.

Figure 5. Schematic of groundwater and surface water movement on volcanic islands, illustrating pollution pathways (modified from Anthony et al. 2004). In this diagram, the mountainside slopes from the top right to the ocean at bottom left.

The delays in recovery time are directly associated with the way water quality affects ecosystems as a whole. Water quality can cause and be altered by landscape level changes, yet affects the biotic integrity of a system on cellular and organismal levels (Figure 8). If the stressors are adequately managed, these effects can be reduced, but if ignored, or unknown, they begin to spread their effect up the hierarchical levels of an ecosystem (Figure 8), eventually causing landscape level changes. For restoration and management efforts to be effective, it must be understood that the length of time required to effectively restore an ecosystem is proportional to the length of time that the stressor causing the ecosystem change has been occurring. Because the duration of ecosystem recovery time is so long, but the effects of water quality change are often slow to be realized, water quality monitoring in the PACN is crucial to effectively managing the parks’ ecosystems. By identifying the stressors and their degree of change, it may be possible for mangers to attempt mitigation prior to larger scale ecosystem changes.

While it is not feasible to monitor the myriad of parameters that affect water quality, this monitoring can be accomplished by focusing on some of the core parameters that are known to affect different ecosystems. Since many water bodies may be unique to their park and have water quality issues due to specific stresses, research and monitoring requirements will need to be addressed individually. The PACN vital sign “Water Quality” addresses these concerns, and ultimately, water quality monitoring should be capable of giving park management officials time to consider options based on the known degree of change occurring within their park.

Figure 6. Some water quality parameters (trapezoids) and their linkages to the ecosystem (ovals). Less significant conduits are drawn with dotted arrows. Stressors (rectangles) to the ecosystem are shown as well.

Figure 7. Duration, intensity, and ecosystem recovery time for water quality changes.

Figure 8. Duration of water quality changes and their effects at differing hierarchical ecosystem levels.

1.4.2 Drivers and Stressors

Drivers and stressors are factors that directly influence the environment and may have human or natural origins (Figure 9). Stressors are changes in natural conditions that result from the operation of a driver. At local spatial scales, drivers can occur independently of one another, but often operate simultaneously, magnifying the effect of associated stressors on the ecosystem.

This is indicated in the conceptual model by enclosure of the stressors into one box relating to ecosystem responses. In the interest of including all water types, this model represents a very broad explanation of aquatic systems.

Climate Change: Change in climate refers to global processes that affect ambient conditions in such a way that prospective conditions differ from recorded historical ones. Parks in the PACN are coastal parks susceptible to rising sea level, such as with global warming and the thermal expansion of seawater (Wetherald 1991). In the PACN, nearshore reefs, coastal wetlands, anchialine pools, and historical fishponds are the water bodies most threatened by changes in sea level. Changes in sea level affect shoreline dynamics and hydrological factors leading to inundation and erosion of coastlines (Leatherman 1991) and sedimentation of nearshore areas.

The impact to areas susceptible to seawater intrusion into drinking water sources is also important because of salt contamination and the difficulties involved with removing salt from drinking water. Terrestrial ecosystems may experience similar changes in composition and structure resulting from saltwater intrusion, storm damage, flooding, and changes in precipitation due to climatic influences (Leatherman 1991). Nearshore habitats may undergo regime shifts when temperatures are no longer tolerable for corals, leading to changes in benthic habitat, species composition, and offshore topography (Smith et al. 2001).

Figure 9. Whole ecosystem linkages in the PACN water quality model and their measures. Drivers (blue boxes), stressors (red ovals), ecosystem responses (yellow diamonds), and measures (green parallelograms).

Land Use: Human activity negatively influences water quality (Valiela et al. 1990, Cosser 1997, Hoegh-Guldberg 1999, Houk 2001, USGS-WRD 2003). Organic enrichment and other chemical changes in water quality may occur due to the presence of farms, human waste, waste water systems, solid waste, and landscaped areas. Land use, such as agriculture, construction of roads, piers, and barriers in coastal areas, and stream channelization, contributes to erosion and subsequent sedimentation, with concurrent physical and chemical changes in aquatic environments (De Carlo et al. 2000). Power plants, quarries, vehicles, and construction activities are sources of particulates that cause contamination of water resources through atmospheric deposition, discharges, and storm events. Human population growth and resulting urban development destroys native habitat, often simultaneously introducing new species into disturbed areas where they out-compete the native biota. Large scale removal of vegetation can influence precipitation patterns (Salati and Nobre 1991, Betts 2004) increasing the likelihood that drought, fire, and erosion will contribute to degradation of streams, wetlands, anchialine pools, fishponds, and reefs. Recreational and commercial activities involving fishing, swimming, and boating alter marine and stream resources by influencing species composition and introducing chemical and physical pollutants. Carbon dioxide emissions by industrialized populations and destruction of tropical forests are contributing to global climate change (Ehrlich 1991) which will alter the hydrology of the earth (Wetherald 1991, Hayes 1991, Valiela 1995).

Natural Disturbance Events: Atmospheric deposition, earthquakes, and tsunamis are examples of natural events that can have unpredictable effects on…