S01 Attachment 9_Archaeological Survey in Delaware 2015_SHPO.pdf

Archaeological Survey in Delaware

February 2015

Delaware Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs State Historic Preservation Office

21 The Green Dover, Delaware 19901

302-736-7400 302-739-5660 (fax)

DHCA State Historic Preservation Office February 2015, p. ii

Table of Contents

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN DELAWARE

INTRODUCTION

What Is A Cultural Resource Survey?

State Laws The Section 106 Process The Role of Management Plans and Historic Context Documents in Survey Historic Context Levels of Survey and Reporting Treatment or Mitigation

IDENTIFICATION LEVEL SURVEY

Goals

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE DEFINITION

The Site Number How Many Artifacts Do You Find Before A Location Is Deemed A Site?

Field Scatter

INITIATING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY: THE RESEARCH DESIGN

Public Involvement Historical and Background Research Methods Expected Results

FIELD METHODS

Remote Sensing Surface Survey Documentation Sub-surface testing Mechanical Methods Testing Strategies Artifact Retention

SPECIAL SITE TYPES

Buried Sites Urban Sites Battlefield and Military Sites Underwater Sites

EVALUATION SURVEY

Background Research Comparative Research Excavations Feature Testing Mechanical Trenching Ecological Samples Determination of Eligibility

National Register Criteria for Evaluation Treatment Options

TREATMENT or MITIGATION Data Recovery Excavation

LABWORK and CURATION

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REPORT GUIDELINES

REPORT CONTENT

SURVEY DOCUMENTATION

GLOSSARY

APPENDIX I: Defined Historic Contexts in Delaware

List of Figures:

Table 1: List of Archival and Historical Repositories in Delaware Table 2: List of Readily Available Maps and Aerial Photographs

ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF SUPPORT

This publication has been financed in part with federal funds from the National Park Service, Department of the Interior. However, the contents and opinions do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Department of the Interior.

NONDISCRIMINATION STATEMENT

This program receives Federal financial assistance for identification and protection of historic properties.

Under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the Age Discrimination Act of 1975, as amended, the U.S. Department of the Interior prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, disability or age in its federally assisted programs. If you believe you have been discriminated against in any program, activity, or facility as described above, or if you desire further information, please write to: Office of Equal Opportunity, National Park Service, 1849 C Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20240.

Doc. No. 2006130705

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN DELAWARE

INTRODUCTION

This guidance is to assist people carrying out archaeological surveys in Delaware. Most surveys are performed as part of the federal-state partnership established by the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (as amended).1 The following guidance seeks to ensure that surveys carried out in Delaware for federal projects will meet the federal requirements. The Delaware State Historic Preservation Office (DE SHPO), a section of the Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs (DHCA), is the main repository for information on historic properties. The Division’s Research Center includes reports and forms from previous archaeological surveys. The Division maintains the Delaware State Archaeological Collections, which includes artifact collections, associated records, and reports. In addition, there is an archaeological research library.

The intention of these guidelines is to standardize and efficiently manage all the archaeological data in the State of Delaware. They are to be followed for all archaeological investigations performed to comply with federal or state laws. These guidelines are based on the Secretary of the Interior's Standards and Guidelines for Archeology and Historic Preservation.2

What Is A Cultural Resource Survey?

A Cultural Resource Survey is the systematic location, description, and evaluation of the physical remains of our past, such as older buildings that are still standing and archaeological sites. An Identification survey provides the primary data about where things are on the landscape, what they are, and how important they are to our knowledge and sense of the past. Evaluation Survey in this program, and throughout this document, means measuring a located property against the standards set by the National Park Service (NPS) for inclusion to the National Register of Historic Places (National Register). Some private developers and property owners are also subject to these federal regulations3 because they need a federal permit or monies to carry out a proposed activity and the federal agency granting the permit or monies has delegated this responsibility to the applicant.

Archeological surveys must be directed by professionals trained in archeological practice and methods. Professional qualification standards4 for principal investigators on such surveys are among the Secretary of the Interior’s Standards.

State Laws

State law requires that any archaeological work on state-owned lands be conducted under a

1 See http://www.achp.gov/nhpa.html 2 See http://www.cr.nps.gov/local-law/arch_stnds_0.htm 3 See Section 106 Regulations, http://www.achp.gov/work106.html 4 See http://www.nps.gov/history/local-law/arch_stnds_9.htm http://www.achp.gov/nhpa.html http://www.cr.nps.gov/local-law/arch_stnds_0.htm http://www.achp.gov/work106.html http://www.nps.gov/history/local-law/arch_stnds_9.htm

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Delaware Antiquities Act permit (7 Del Code Ch. 53)5 from the Director of the Division. The Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control has regulations (Delaware State Park Regulations, Title 7, §9201, 3.1.6 and 3.1.76) that protects archaeological sites in their jurisdiction from any disturbance including unauthorized collection or excavation. The Delaware Unmarked Human Remains Act (7 Del. Code Ch. 54)7 further requires that the discovery of unmarked human remains during any project, private or public, must be reported to the Division Director, and triggers a public notification period, during which project work must stop in the area of the remains. Depending on whether the remains are from pre-contact populations or not, the Human Remains Committee decides on their disposition, or descendants found during the notification process may claim the remains. If the remains are to be removed, an archaeological survey and excavation of them must be done under the review of the DE SHPO.

The Section 106 Process

Many of the users of this document will be consultants working for agencies that are required to evaluate the effect of their projects on architectural and archeological historic resources. The law that mandates this activity is Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended.

Any time federal funding is used or licensing is required, the activity must take into account the effect on historic properties. For more information about the Section 106 process, check the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation’s web site, www.achp.gov/ or the DE SHPO web site at http://history.delaware.gov/preservation/index.shtml.

The Role of Management Plans and Historic Context Documents in Survey

The DE SHPO has sponsored the development of cultural resource management plans and related historic contexts. These plans are our collective knowledge and experience and are used as a framework for the study of cultural resources in Delaware. Surveyors should fit their work into this framework, and contribute to the goals and priorities of these plans whenever possible. The surveyor is invited to contribute to these plans by identifying the weaknesses in and providing new interpretations of historic context information when warranted.

Historic Contexts

Contexts are useful ways to accumulate existing research on a topic, relate it to resources that are already known and have been explored, and set up ways to look at newly discovered resources.

Avenues of research and inquiry pursued by the authors are included in the texts of these documents, as are how their research designs worked and recommendations for further work. These can be very useful to lay a ground work for the work ahead and can save time, especially in the evaluation of

5 See Delaware Code On-line, http://delcode.delaware.gov/title7/c053/index.shtml 6 See Delaware Administrative Code On-line, http://regulations.delaware.gov/AdminCode/title7/9000/9200%20Operation%20and%20Maintenance%20Section/92 01.htm#TopOfPage 7 See Delaware Code On-line, http://delcode.delaware.gov/title7/c054/index.shtml http://history.delaware.gov/preservation/index.shtml http://delcode.delaware.gov/title7/c053/index.shtml http://regulations.delaware.gov/AdminCode/title7/9000/9200%20Operation%20and%20Maintenance%20Section/9201.htm#TopOfPage http://regulations.delaware.gov/AdminCode/title7/9000/9200%20Operation%20and%20Maintenance%20Section/9201.htm#TopOfPage http://delcode.delaware.gov/title7/c054/index.shtml

DHCA State Historic Preservation Office February 2015, p. 3 newly identified resources for the National Register. Also, it is expected that all work will be in a similar format and contain the same components to be of use to future researchers.

Fully developed historic contexts deal with issues of National Register eligibility of property types.

Criteria are set for significance and integrity based on the findings of the context that augment and refine the standard National Register criteria of significance and integrity. Items to consider when developing these more targeted criteria include the relative rarity of the resource, relative importance within the group studied, and the level and aspects of physical integrity required to convey this significance.8 For example, the report Agricultural Tenancy in Central Delaware, 1770-1900 +/-:

A Historic Context presents the unique background of tenancy in Delaware and can be used to evaluate the smaller, more ephemeral 19th-century agricultural sites.

For evaluation-level surveys, if no previous contexts or management plans provide applicable criteria, the survey report must set out the criteria used for evaluating all the surveyed properties, and specifically measure each surveyed property against these criteria to justify the eligibility decisions made, whether eligible or not eligible. (See Report Guidelines below, p. 24.)

Levels of Survey and Reporting

In the federal program, there are two levels of survey: identification and evaluation. These build on one another and lead to determining the eligibility of properties for the National Register of Historic Places. This is the federal list of properties worthy of historic preservation. Not every survey will go through both levels.

The general goal of the Identification survey is to find and identify archaeological sites and historic properties on a given parcel of land. For identification survey that will be archived by the DE SHPO, standard forms are filled out or updated for each historic property located. Each property is photographed and mapped. A unique number (known as a Cultural Resource Survey or CRS number) will be provided by DE SHPO staff to relate all forms, photographs and mapping to a specific property. (See Data Coordination Guidance9 for specific instructions on each form.)

Evaluation survey looks at the identified properties and considers their eligibility for the National Register, based on federally determined criteria.10 Properties may be eligible individually or collectively as a district. Individual properties can also be grouped by theme and related historically.

All surveys carried out for federal and state projects must result in a report. The report explains the research design, presents the historical background, and discusses fully the results of the survey.

Appendices may include forms, photographs, and supplementary material. Format and contents of a survey report are discussed below for each level of survey. However, the levels may be combined in a single overall survey report. Of course, all federally funded or permitted surveys should conform to the Secretary of the Interior's Standards and Guidelines11 for Identification, Evaluation, 8 See Historic Context Guidance For Evaluation Survey, on http://history.delaware.gov/preservation/surveys.shtml.

9 See http://history.delaware.gov/preservation/surveys.shtml for link to guidance.

10 See http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/publications/bulletins/nrb15/nrb15_2.htm.

11 See http://www.nps.gov/history/local-law/arch_stnds_0.htm .

http://history.delaware.gov/preservation/surveys.shtml http://history.delaware.gov/preservation/surveys.shtml http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/publications/bulletins/nrb15/nrb15_2.htm http://www.nps.gov/history/local-law/arch_stnds_0.htm

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Archeological Documentation, and Historical Documentation, as appropriate. Other surveys are encouraged to meet these standards as they represent best practices of the profession.

Treatment or Mitigation

The treatment plan is not a part of the survey process but often results from it. The Section 106 process mandates a series of negotiations among interested parties that is formalized by a Memorandum of Agreement. A formal treatment plan must be approved by the consulting parties before any physical action is undertaken. Treatment actions are used to mitigate the damage a federal project can have on a historic property or site. These actions are implemented once the significant resources in a project area are known and the adverse effects identified. Certain kinds of treatment result in reports that must meet the Secretary's Standards and Guidelines and the DE SHPO Guidelines. The DE SHPO reviews data recovery reports using the same general standards as discussed in this manual.

Consultation with the DE SHPO staff is encouraged at any points where guidance is needed or questions arise that are not covered in these guidelines.

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IDENTIFICATION LEVEL SURVEY

GOALS

In archaeological surveys this level of work features pedestrian survey and surface collection and subsurface testing to locate and identify an archaeological site. Once one is found, the investigations should provide a preliminary assessment of a site's integrity, horizontal boundaries, and, possibly, its data potential. If there is poor surface visibility, then the surveyors must test below the surface for such site information. Sufficient information should be gathered to allow the surveyor to fill out a site form for each located site. While this level of testing may not answer the questions about a site's eligibility, occasionally, it can determine if the integrity of the site is so poor that the site is not eligible.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE DEFINITION

The Site Number

The DE SHPO is using the following standards and procedures for assigning site numbers. The overall site number is assigned usually on the basis of an identification survey when little is known at that time about the nature or extent of the site. This number primarily denotes a locus of human activity, indicated by the presence of buildings, structures, or ruins, artifact concentrations, soil discolorations, or other surface or sub-surface signs of the modification or use of a geographic area bounded by visible natural or cultural features, such as ephemeral or permanent streams, or roads and field boundaries (depending upon the time period of the site). Pre-contact sites and post-European contact sites at the same location receive the same number

Sometimes artifact concentrations alone are not altogether reliable indicators of a site's actual boundaries. Often concentrations that appear discontinuous on the surface are found to be connected during sub-surface testing, and merely denote areas of greater activity. At other times, features are found outside of the artifact concentration. Therefore the DE SHPO assigns a single site number to a geographic locus and gives letter designations to differentiate sub-areas within that locus. A single artifact with no other site areas or components in the related area does not constitute a site, but is labeled a find spot or isolated find, and is not given a site or CRS number.

In urban areas, the site number is given to the National Register Historic District (if one has been designated) or to a section of the urban landscape that shares a common historical development.

Other Terms: The term Reconnaissance Level survey is used by National Park Service and the term Identification/Location Level survey is used by the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. In these guidelines, we will use the latter, but the two terms are interchangeable. Also, it is often called a Phase I or Phase IB Survey in the 106 process, if done separately from the evaluation survey.

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Individual lots or areas being excavated are denoted by sub-area letters, as above, or, in Wilmington, by the block number.

All sites located must be recorded, even if they appear to be "modern." However, investigation of sites that are less than 50 years old generally needs only be sufficient to identify the time period covered by the site, since sites of this age do not meet the National Register age criterion but could be subject to an exception. Note that buildings, structures, objects, and specialized landscapes such as cemeteries are recorded as archaeological sites (on form CRS-4) only when they are archaeologically tested. If extant resources over fifty years old exist on the site, they too must be included in the survey and the location assigned a CRS number.

Once a site number is assigned, the Principal Investigator must request a provenience/catalogue number from the Division’s Curator of Archaeology. This number is the basis for labeling the artifacts and containers during laboratory processing. It is important to obtain this number early, to ensure that proveniences are maintained during analysis.

How Many Artifacts Do You Find Before A Location Is Deemed A Site?

The SHPO has resisted a “rule of thumb” definition of a site. We suggest if one finds a number of artifacts from the same time period in contiguous shovel tests or in surface concentration, one may have found a site. However, there are many exceptions. First, there are certain populations who left very little that would be detectable through standard survey methods; yet their archaeological traces are very important to our heritage. Any artifact left from people of the Paleo-Indian period or Early Colonial period may merit further investigations in the field to determine if there is a site (a locus of human activity) or not.12 The presence of an intact subsurface cultural feature would also qualify as a site. In contrast, artifacts redeposited by alluvial or tidal actions or by modern construction hold little archaeological value. Also, artifacts that have been deposited by casual discard (roadside litter, such as modern bottle glass fragments) or field scatter resulting from manuring would not be deemed a site or merit a site number.

Field Scatter

A common phenomenon in Delaware, historic field scatter, is caused by the post-1830 practice of field manuring, to increase the fertility of the soil. This manure included all the trash and garbage from the farm, so it is common to find a light scatter of nineteenth-century domestic artifacts over agricultural fields. Such scatters evidence this kind of farming practice and should be noted in the survey report. Artifacts recovered are given a general provenience catalog number, and not given a site or CRS number. Our rationale is that the field scatter is ubiquitous and the research potential too limited to merit a site form.

If you have questions about designating an area as a site, consult with the DE SHPO.

12 See http://history.delaware.gov/pdfs/17thcentury_delaware.pdf and http://history.delaware.gov/pdfs/liebknecht_paper.pdf for more information.

http://history.delaware.gov/pdfs/17thcentury_delaware.pdf http://history.delaware.gov/pdfs/liebknecht_paper.pdf

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INITIATING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY: THE RESEARCH

DESIGN

The purpose for doing an identification survey guides the PI in developing an approach to the survey, known as the research design. At this point in the project, it is critical for the PI to think about what to do (objectives), how to do it (methods), and what may be found (expected results). The primary objective is to identify archaeological sites and/ or historic properties within a given study area.

The area must be clearly defined on a map. The methods need to include research, field, and laboratory analysis methods. The investigator should look at satellite and aerial photography of the area to get an initial idea of the topography, land forms, vegetation, and possible areas of disturbance, so the PI can better plan the work and incorporate this information in the research design. The expected results depend on the area or theme of the survey. Is the area urban, rural, or suburban? Is the theme based on a particular site type, an event, or a time period? The PI defines the research design so that everyone working on the survey understands what needs to be accomplished.

Public Involvement

To build good will with inhabitants of the survey area, the PI or the client agency may want to notify the town and/or county government and any local historical society prior to any field work. This will assist in the next stage by starting the process of locating local informants and may provide historical sources not found in the major archives.

While it is the responsibility of the federal agency and/or the recipient of federal funds or permits to perform public outreach for a Section 106 project, at some point it will usually involve the cultural resource team as well. Public outreach activities can range from tours and public days to talks with concerned groups to classroom presentations. The Principal Investigator especially needs to include outreach to ethnic minority groups when the expected property types include buildings or sites related to the history of those groups.

Historical and Background Research

We recommend the investigator perform substantial documentary research (not just consult standard historic atlases) before initiating subsurface testing. Background research or familiarization with the area to be studied is the beginning point of any survey but can also be a discrete level of survey. (It is what is called a Phase IA Survey in the 106 process.) At this level, the surveyors gather all relevant secondary and readily available primary source material on the history of the project area, to allow the surveyors to identify the historic contexts and property types that will most likely be encountered in the area and on which a preliminary research design can be based.

There are many good sources of background information for survey. DE SHPO maintains files and reports on the results of previous surveys (Cultural Resource Survey Inventory) and of National Register nominations. It also has a small library of other studies and reports dealing with Delaware's history and architecture, and with national preservation programs and issues. The Division maintains the Delaware State Archaeological Collections, including a research library of Delaware's and other areas' archaeology and material culture and of Delaware's history. The investigator is encouraged to

DHCA State Historic Preservation Office February 2015, p. 8 review extant collections previously recovered near the project area. These collections provide excellent sources of comparative material for research and analysis. Other collections are owned by the University of Delaware Department of Anthropology, which maintains its own repository.

The main repositories for archival and historical information on Delaware history are the Delaware Public Archives in the Hall of Records in Dover, the University of Delaware Morris Library in Newark, the Historical Society of Delaware and the Wilmington Institute Library in Wilmington, the Maryland State Archives, and the Historical Society of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. Repositories of specialized collections in the state include: Hagley Museum and Library for economic and industrial history; Winterthur Museum, Library and Gardens for architecture, landscape architecture and decorative arts; and the Delaware Agricultural Museum and Village for agricultural history and material culture, especially nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Before any field work, the PI insures that enough background research on the area or theme is done to establish what is already known. The researcher looks for histories and maps of the state and local area.

Table 1: List of Archival and Historical Repositories in Delaware Name of Repository Delaware Public Archives Delaware Historical Society Hagley Museum and Library Wilmington Institute Library University of Delaware Morris Library Delaware State University William C. Jason Library DE SHPO Research Center Local community historical societies Local libraries

The Division’s Research Center contains reports of previous surveys, maps, and historic property files. The researcher should check the unpublished reports and consult the maps and historic property files to determine what is known in the project area and whether the previous survey information needs to be updated or not.

Table 2: List of Readily Available Maps and Aerial Photographs Title of Historic Map or Aerial Photograph Source Format Date Baist Atlas of New Castle County DPA13, DHCA14 Paper, film 1893 DE SHPO Cultural and Historic Resource Information System15 (CHRIS): geographic information mapping portal; all material geo-referenced; includes historic aerial photography; historic property inventory mapped as points with attached forms (incomplete); National Register properties

On-line Digital aerial photographs 1937, 1961, 1992, 1997, 2002, and 2007

13 Delaware Public Archives, http://archives.delaware.gov 14 Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs, http://history.delaware.gov http://archives.delaware.gov/ http://history.delaware.gov/

DHCA State Historic Preservation Office February 2015, p. 9 mapped as points with nominations and photographs linked; National Historic Landmark property boundaries mapped as polygons; National Register district boundaries mapped as polygons Dallin Aerial Survey Company (Wilmington, northern, and central Delaware, oblique & some vertical views)

Hagley (on-line)16

Paper, digital

1924-1941

Delaware aerial photography UD DEMAC on-line17

Digital 1937, 1954, 1961, 1968, 1992, 1997, 2002, 2007, 2010, 2011, Delaware Department of Transportation Aerial Photograph Collection

DPA Paper 1932-1972

Hopkins Atlas of New Castle County DPA, DHCA Paper, film 1881 Nautical charts and miscellaneous maps NOAA (on-line)18 digital c. 1800-2000

Pomeroy and Beers Atlas of Delaware DPA, DHCA Paper, film, digital, GIS

Rea and Price Map of Delaware DPA, DHCA Paper, film 1856 Rea and Price Map of New Castle County DPA, DHCA Paper, film 1849 Sanborn maps of Delaware towns DPA, DHCA Film, digital 1880s – 1950s US Army Air Corps (for DE State Highway Dept.) aerial photographs (coastal only)

Hagley Paper, digital

US Coast and Geodetic Survey DPA, DHCA Paper, film 1848 USDA statewide aerial photographs DPA, DHCA, UD DEMAC on-line

Paper, digital

1937-38

USGS topographic maps, 15’ series DHCA, Maptech (on-line)19

Digital 1902-1936

USGS topographic maps, all series USGS (on-line map explorer)20

Digital 1896-1997

Methods

Archaeological survey can examine the entire project area or only a portion thereof, based on a specific sampling strategy, which must be justified. When the survey strategy is based on a predictive

15 Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs, https://chris-users.delaware.gov.

16 Hagley Museum and Library, http://digital.hagley.org/cdm4/index_p268001uw.php?CISOROOT=/p268001uw.

17 UD DEMAC, http://demac.udel.edu/data/aerial-photography; available as map tiles or as GIS map service.

18 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coast Survey, Historical Map & Chart Project, http://historicalcharts.noaa.gov/historicals/historical_zoom.asp.

19 Maptech, http://historical.maptech.com/.

20 USGS Historical Topographic Map Explorer, http://historicalmaps.arcgis.com/usgs/.

https://chris-users.delaware.gov/ http://digital.hagley.org/cdm4/index_p268001uw.php?CISOROOT=/p268001uw http://demac.udel.edu/data/aerial-photography http://historicalcharts.noaa.gov/historicals/historical_zoom.asp http://historical.maptech.com/ http://historicalmaps.arcgis.com/usgs/

DHCA State Historic Preservation Office February 2015, p. 10 model for site location, some testing must be carried out in areas of low potential as well as in areas of moderate to high potential to test the model. The survey should be designed to provide a statistically representative sample of the project area (reconnaissance/identification level surveys) or of the site (evaluation/ intensive level surveys). No one particular kind of testing or analysis, sample intervals, or intensity of coverage is mandated here. The intent of these guidelines is to establish minimum expectations for particular methods when they are to be applied in any given situation.

The methods designed for the survey must be appropriate to the level of work proposed and to the kinds of research information that the Principal Investigator intends to recover. DE SHPO recommends that agencies sponsoring archaeological surveys submit their draft request for proposals (RFP) to DE SHPO for review. Under Section 106, agencies are required to consult beforehand with DE SHPO over the level of effort involved. Scopes of work for projects on state-owned or controlled lands must be submitted in advance to the Director of the Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs in accordance with the Delaware Antiquities Act (Delaware Code Title 7, Chapter 5321). DE SHPO is available to offer advice on evaluating proposals in response to RFPs.

Expected Results

A discussion of expected results often means applying the predictive model and stating how likely it is that different site types of various time periods are present in the survey areas. State the expected property types, their density, and probable locations. For example, certain types of sites are strongly linked to certain types of locations, such as mills on streams above the head of navigation. A basic statement on expectations is all that is needed. For example, sites in Wilmington’s East Side Historic District are expected to date from the mid- to late nineteenth century and early twentieth century. In rural areas, expected results might range from pre-contact sites to early twentieth century sites.

FIELD METHODS

Field methods are designed to create a permanent record of the survey and sites tested. Complete and careful field notes, photographs, artifact documentation, drawings, etc. are critical to this effort. Field methods can include (but are not limited to) remote sensing, mapping, surface collection, hand-excavation of shovel test pits and/or larger unit test pits along a transect or within a grid, split-spoon auguring, feature excavation, and controlled mechanical excavation. Usually, a good field strategy will not rely on a single method; a variety of techniques should be employed as appropriate to the nature of the site and the expected data.

Field survey should always begin with a walkover of the project area. Because existing landscape features and/or buildings are relevant parts of many sites, their examination and recordation through measured drawings, photography, contour maps, and/or location maps are frequently necessary as well.

21 See Delaware Code On-line, http://delcode.delaware.gov/title7/c053/index.shtml http://delcode.delaware.gov/title7/c053/index.shtml

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Remote Sensing

In some circumstances, applying remote sensing methods,22 such as ground-penetrating radar, soil resistivity, metal detector, and magnetometer surveys, are useful in planning the remainder of the fieldwork approach. However, the investigator should always keep in mind the limitations of the method chosen. For example, ground-penetrating radar has been helpful in identifying grave shafts in cemeteries, but ineffective in wet soils and detecting deeply buried features. The operator of these tools must be qualified and experienced in using them in archaeological contexts.

Surface Survey

General or controlled surface collection of artifacts can be used for reconnaissance/identification-level surveys in areas where adequate ground visibility is available (e.g., a recently plowed field). If the project area includes an agricultural field which is currently fallow, plowing and disking23 can be used to provide appropriate ground visibility. Each area should be examined from at least two angles of view. Note that in all identification surveys, surface survey must be augmented with sub-surface testing to determine site formation and site structure, integrity, and potential for sub-surface features.

Documentation

Field measurements can be in either feet and tenths of feet or metric for historic period sites, but on sites representing occupation by pre-contact people, metric units should be used. All field observations must be recorded in a field log or excavation record, and profile and plan drawings and color digital photographs must be made of all features and a sample of units as appropriate.

Representative samples of diagnostic artifacts should be photographed and/or drawn.

Sub-surface testing

Sub-surface testing usually involves the hand-excavation of shovel test pits and/or measured excavation units along a transect or within a grid. The intervals between the shovel tests unit can vary, but should not exceed 50 feet. Other discretionary testing strategies can be used, either alone or in addition to a transect/grid approach. In either case, the research design must explicitly state how the testing strategy will meet the objectives of the survey. In every sub-surface shovel or unit test, the nature of each soil stratum encountered should be recorded, including depth, soil color (Munsell Color) and texture. As a general rule, all hand-excavated soils, excepting samples retained for analysis related to other research objectives, but including feature fill, must be sifted through 1/4 inch hardware cloth to ensure standard recovery of artifacts. Additionally, if the Principal Investigator determines that a culturally sterile or modern fill stratum is present over intact site deposits; such intrusive soils need not be screened. The rationale for such decisions must be indicated in the survey report. Most of the method describe above are effect for sites in rural or

22 DelDOT is sponsoring a study of remote sensing methods and their utility in different situations, which will be posted on their web site when completed. See http://www.deldot.gov/archaeology/index.shtml.

23 See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_harrow http://www.deldot.gov/archaeology/index.shtml http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_harrow

DHCA State Historic Preservation Office February 2015, p. 12 suburban landscapes. If the surveyors need to investigate urban, buried or underwater sites, other methods must be employed.

Mechanical Methods

In order to access deeply buried soils, or to remove modern overburden, mechanical excavation machinery can be used, if managed appropriately. A trench can be dug with a backhoe, grade-all or similar equipment if a skilled operator is employed and the actual bucket is toothless. The trenches should be strategically placed in order to understand the development of the landform and to test the most likely area for human activity. Please note that all deep excavations should follow the current safety requirements. The excavations should be closely monitored by an archaeologist. During this process, the machine operator should pause, and the recently exposed surfaces should be examined by the investigator, who will search for artifacts, features, or other signs of human activity. Once the trench is complete, the walls should be scraped and documented with photographs and profile drawings. The trenching should dig until the investigator reaches culturally sterile soils.

As most early habitation sites may not be detectable from the profile of a mechanical trench, a degree of subsurface testing may be required. The controlled excavation of a 1 by 1 meter unit in suspect strata, supplemented by judicious shovel testing is recommended. The soils of the excavation units should be screened and documented as in normal circumstances. The testing should focus on the integrity of the soils. Buried archaeological deposits found in these contexts may be very significant due to the high integrity of the soils, assuming they have never been plowed. In contrast, if the soils are in an alluvial context, they may be redeposited sediments and artifacts, and hold little archaeological value. Of course, these are generalizations, and the DE SHPO is open to new approaches.

Testing Strategies

In many circumstance the modern overburden has buried site, the methods listed in the above section of buried sites are useful. Of course, it is a matter of judgment to distinguish between the “modern overburden” and historic fill, or occupation. Sometimes the “yard” area is the zone that produces the best information on domestic activities and living standards. In historic cities, these areas are usually located in the backlot, where the productive features and privies and wells can be found. The documentation of such feature should include measure drawings and photography.

Artifact Retention

Due to the fragile nature of archaeological remains and the inherent destruction of archaeological sites during excavation, it is the policy of the DE SHPO to maintain a comprehensive collection from each excavated site. Please do not collect the obviously modern objects such as plastic, vessel glass with a modern finish and seam line, and other objects that were deposited since 1960. It may be appropriate to collect and retain only a sample of certain artifact classes from certain contexts. For example, in towns and cities, one can be overwhelmed by the large numbers and volumes of historic artifacts. If they are not recovered from a feature, many of the contexts were open to public access

DHCA State Historic Preservation Office February 2015, p. 13 and casual discard. It would be prudent to formulate the research design to collect a sample of the artifacts encountered, and not retain large assemblages with limited analytical value.

Decisions on culling artifacts should be made by the Principal Investigator in consultation with DE SHPO and the client agency, based on the approved research design.

SPECIAL SITE TYPES

Buried Sites

In areas where aeolian, alluvial, or colluvial deposits are known or suspected to be present, the Principal Investigator must take appropriate steps for deep testing to look for buried cultural strata and to investigate site formation processes. The Investigator is encouraged to consult with a geomorphologist and/or geoarchaeologist when complex stratigraphic contexts are anticipated in the research design. When encountering deep deposits that are not practical to excavate with hand tools, the Investigator may employ mechanical methods. Before using mechanical methods, please use auger and coring tools to explore the characteristics of the suspect strata.

Urban Sites

By definition, a city is an archeological site. Archaeological investigations in the modern urban settings usually focuses on finding components of evidence e of earlier occupations buried underneath modern construction.

Battlefield and Military Sites24

Most archaeological survey methods focus on revealing domestic sites, but fail to locate military ones. Our settlement pattern models usually consider environmental variables that affect subsistence or economic activities. The military uses the landscape differently than other human activities.

Soldiers camp in inhospitable locations. Steep hills become very important. However, these sites can be very important to our heritage as battlefield become sacred places and contain unmarked burials.

Therefore, our models and techniques must adapt for these specialized sites. However, this land use can be well documented in the military records, and the investigator should rely on primary, as well as secondary sources.

A system of interpreting battlefield landscapes known as the KOCOA system has been adopted by the NPS and endorsed by the American Battlefield Protection Program for the evaluation of historic battlefield environments. It encompasses key landscape features that may have affected or directed the military action in a given location, and keeps the evaluator from focusing solely upon archaeological remains or built environment such as earthworks:

24 Adapted from Virginia Department of Historic Resources guidance

DHCA State Historic Preservation Office February 2015, p. 14

K Key terrain (terrain that must be taken or held to obtain victory)

O Observation and fields of fire (terrain that permits observation of enemy movements and avenues of approach)

C Cover/concealment (terrain that provides troops with cover or protection from enemy fire)

O Obstacles (features that stand in the way of seizing key terrain – these can be natural, such as heavy woods or deep swamp, or man-made such as fencelines, ditches or earthworks)

A Avenues of approach (terrain by which the enemy may be approached – this can be anything from an established roadway to an open field)

A thorough visual observation of the ground surface needs to be conducted to identify surface features (huts, chimney falls, latrines, etc), broad scatters and/or clusters of building materials, and evidence of relic hunting. This is especially needed for transect surveys where it is likely that only a portion of the site is contained in the project area.

Areas of steep slopes (>15%), sometimes excluded from survey, need to be examined as slopes are often favored locations for military encampments.

Landscape features are key components to military sites and can be recorded as archaeological resources.

Metal detector surveys are recommended because the majority of diagnostic items deposited at military sites are metallic. When implemented, the metal detector survey shall consider relevant factors such as the experience of the metal detector operator(s), the type of metal detector(s), ground cover, intensity of survey coverage, extent of previous relic hunting, and environmental factors.

Underwater Sites

Archaeological testing in underwater settings often involves unusual circumstances. Discuss research designs for underwater identification surveys in advance with DE SHPO staff.25 A remote sensing protocol should involve both side scanning sonar and a magnetometer in a systematic survey. Survey coverage needs to be broad enough to include areas planned for construction vessels’ anchorage.

Lane spacing should be approved by the DE SHPO staff. Consider the potential for Native American sites to be present as well, which may require other approaches than diving.

In general, identification efforts in an underwater setting are to include:

25 See http://www.boem.gov/Environmental-Stewardship/Archaeology/Gulf-of-Mexico-Archaeological- Information.aspx for more information.

http://www.boem.gov/Environmental-Stewardship/Archaeology/Gulf-of-Mexico-Archaeological-Information.aspx http://www.boem.gov/Environmental-Stewardship/Archaeology/Gulf-of-Mexico-Archaeological-Information.aspx

DHCA State Historic Preservation Office February 2015, p. 15

1. Placement of test units based on remote sensing results and knowledge of the sunken vessel or submerged cultural remains.

2. Use of mechanized equipment where extensive modern overburden is present.

3. Careful examination of air-lifted and water-dredged soil samples. The soil samples must always be screened through mesh or net bagging.

4. Records of the investigation, including site drawings and photographs.

5. Compliance with safety standards of nationally recognized diving organizations (PADI, Instructors NAUI, SSI, etc.).

DHCA State Historic Preservation Office February 2015, p. 16

EVALUATION SURVEY

OR INTENSIVE LEVEL SURVEY OR PHASE II

GOALS

The goal of this level of investigation is to evaluate the eligibility of an archaeological site or property for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. Usually, archaeologists use Criterion D to evaluate a site as this criterion focuses on the potential of a site to provide important information on the prehistory or history of our region or country. However, Criterion A, B, and C are encouraged to be used as well, when they are relevant.

This level of investigation will provide definitive information on both vertical and horizontal boundaries, site structure, integrity, and the significance of the data available. The survey report must meet the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for Evaluation, and, as appropriate, for Archeological Documentation and/or Historical Documentation.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVALUATION

Background Research The key to evaluation is to have sufficient background research to determine which properties are significant within the appropriate historic context(s).26 Also, this level includes detailed historic research that is sufficient to understanding the properties’ place within the state’s historic context framework and to identify any associations with significant people or events. This can be accomplished by the use of historic documents, such as but not limited to, deeds, wills, probate records, censuses, poll tax records or street directories.

Comparative Research Whether the site component is Native American, African American or European American, comparative archaeological research is required. The investigator must review the archaeological literature of this region and find comparative examples. The Division strongly encourages researchers to use its archaeological collections for comparative research and analysis. Over the past several decades, the DE SHPO has invested in the development of historic contexts to aid the evaluation of sites. These documents provide comparative background information and criteria for evaluation. More work is needed if none exists, to develop appropriate scales to measure the

26 See Historic Context Guidance For Evaluation Survey, on http://history.delaware.gov/preservation/surveys.shtml.

This survey level is defined as an Intensive level survey by the National Park Service and as an Evaluation level survey by the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. In these guidelines, the terms are used interchangeably.

(This is often called Phase II in the 106 process).

http://history.delaware.gov/preservation/surveys.shtml

DHCA State Historic Preservation Office February 2015, p. 17 importance of archaeological properties.

Excavations The goal of test excavations should be to define and sample cultural features and to assess the integrity of the site. The information will be used to make management decisions. If the site is significant and eligible for National Register of Historic Places, then we need to delineate the limits of the archaeological deposits in order define the effects of the undertaking and develop mitigation alternatives. In other words, we need to find the exact limits and the nature of a site for excavation planning or to implement conservation options.

Large open excavations are not encouraged at intensive/evaluation levels of work as these methods are usually more appropriate for (Phase III) data recovery efforts. However, the nature of the deposits may warrant the use of a limited number of excavated trenches or blocks during testing. Test units that measure 1x1 meter, or 3'x3' square are very successful at this level, as they are just large enough for one person to dig and observe the soils strata. As mentioned previously, in every test unit, the nature of each soil stratum encountered should be recorded, including depth, soil color (Munsell Color) and texture. As a general rule, all hand-excavated soils, excepting samples retained for analysis related to other research objectives, but including feature fill, must be sifted through 1/4 inch hardware cloth to ensure standard recovery of artifacts. Additionally, if the Principal Investigator determines that a culturally sterile or modern fill stratum is present over intact site deposits; such intrusive soils need not be screened. The rationale for such decisions must be indicated in the survey report.

Feature Testing

Overall, the DE SHPO encourages a sampling approach to the examination of features at the evaluation level of investigation. When a potential feature is encountered in a test unit, the unit could be widened to define the nature of the anomaly. Depending on research design, testing of the feature (generally, quarter or half sections) to establish morphology, stratigraphy, cultural affiliation, and potential function may be appropriate, as well as recovery of ecological samples. Some features (particularly small features, such as post holes) may involve full excavation. The Principal Investigator should take into account the level of investigation, the research design, the likelihood that the site will be revisited for further study, the nature of the feature(s) encountered, and immediate threats to the site.

Mechanical Trenching

Controlled trenching with heavy machinery may be appropriate at any level of survey.