J6-i_GESI_Analysis_KISAN_II_Final.pdf

November 10, 2016

This publication was produced at the request of the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared independently by CAMRIS International.

GENDER EQUALITY SOCIAL INCLUSION ANALYSIS

KNOWLEDGE BASED INTEGRATED SUSTAINABLE

AGRICULTURE IN NEPAL (KISAN II)

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GENDER EQUALITY SOCIAL INCLUSION

ANALYSIS

KNOWLEDGE BASED INTEGRATED SUSTAINABLE

AGRICULTURE IN NEPAL (KISAN II)

November 10, 2016

Contract Number: AID-367-C-15-00001

DISCLAIMER

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The author’s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Team Members

Executive Summary

The Context

Findings

Conclusions

Recommendations

Appendix I: References

Appendix II: Key Stakeholders Interviewed in Kathmandu

Appendix III: KISAN Project Staff Met in the Field

Appendix VI: Primary Stakeholders (Met, Interviewed, FGDs held and some Case Studies conducted) ... 50

Appendix V: Composite Semi Structured Questionnaire & Checklist

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADB Asian Development Bank AMTs Agricultural Marketing Technicians ANSAB Asia Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bio-resources AVC Agricultural Value Chain DAG Disadvantaged Group DFID Department for International Development FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FGD Focus Group Discussion FtF Feed the Future GESI Gender Equality and Social Inclusion GoN Government of Nepal HDI Human Development Index ICT Information and Communication Technologies IGA Income Generation Activities IPM Integrated Pest Management JT Junior Technicians JTA Junior Technical Assistants KISAN Knowledge-based Integrated Sustainable Agriculture and Nutrition KSA Knowledge, Skills, Attitude MoAD Ministry of Agriculture Development MoI Ministry of Industry MDGs Millennium Development Goals MPC Marketing Planning Committee NGO Non-Governmental Organization NTFP Non-Timber Forest Products PPP Public Private Partnership SDC Swiss Development Cooperation SDGs Sustainable Development Goals TYP Three-Year Plans UN United Nations USAID United States Agency for International Development VDC Village Development Committee WEAI Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index ZOI-I Zone of Influence-I

TEAM MEMBERS

Ms. Indira M. Shrestha, Team Leader, Shtrii Shakti Mr. Deepak D. Tamang, Field Study Coordinator, Shtrii Shakti Ms. Maya Lohani, Field Research Officer, Shtrii Shakti Ms. Una Maya Tamang, Field Researcher, Shtrii Shakti Ms. Nanu Ghatani, Field Researcher, Shtrii Shakti Mr. Jitendra Shrestha, Field Researcher, Shtrii Shakti

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

BACKGROUND

A key objective of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) in Nepal is inclusive and sustainable economic growth through programs, projects and activities focused on increasing agricultural productivity, strengthening value chains and developing small-scale enterprises. In concert with the U.S. Government's Feed the Future Initiative, USAID/Nepal is pursuing these objectives through activities that increase rural incomes and improve nutrition in 20 districts in Far-Western, Mid-Western and Western regions of the country, referred to as the Zone of Influence-I (ZOI-I). GESI is a critical cross-cutting issue in all of these interventions and is considered to be integral to the success and impact of USAID/Nepal programs.

The USAID-funded Knowledge Based Integrated Sustainable Agriculture and Nutrition (KISAN) project is implemented in 20 districts of Western, Mid-Western and Far-Western middle hills and Terai regions.

These districts constitute the ZOI-I for the project. These are the districts that often suffer severe cereal deficits (more than 30 percent below requirement). Many of the deficit districts in the Mid- and Far- West are among the poorest, with low human development index. The region, particularly the hills and mountains, face problems of connectivity and suffer from serious infrastructure deficits. Even in the relatively more accessible Terai, there are many pockets of poverty. Evidence shows that there is little marketable surplus in the area. Keeping with the national trend, the region also is becoming increasingly reliant on imports of agricultural products, due to an increase in income and population coupled with shifting consumption patterns. Local and indigenous varieties of food and seeds are disappearing.

Market surveys indicate a shift in food consumption patterns of grains, as people are demanding more and better-quality rice. The shift appears to be primarily fueled by an increase in remittances. As population grows, incomes improve and new road networks open, more consumers now rely on markets and, in particular, imports (USAID, 2013).

PURPOSE

KISAN has been one of USAID/Nepal’s largest activities to promote agricultural productivity in the ZOI-I via the development of rice, maize and high-value vegetable value chains. As the Mission looks towards funding for KISAN II, it is commissioning various assessments to formulate the design process, including a GESI analysis. The purpose of this GESI analysis is to assist USAID/Nepal as follows:

1. To provide a concise overview of gender and social disparities that limit opportunities for women and disadvantaged groups. The goal is to increase productivity of rice, maize and high-value vegetables and to diversify into other promising crops and off-farm enterprises in the ZOI- I by improving value chains. How do these disparities affect inclusive value chain development?

What have been some effective strategies for reducing these disparities? This overview includes:

Key factors that affect access to resources for increasing productivity (land, labor, inputs, technologies and financial services).

Key factors that limit access to markets.

Key factors—such as trust and information flow—that affect the ability of women and other disadvantaged groups to develop strong commercial relationships in value chains.

How social transformations are changing the role of women and marginalized groups in agriculture in the ZOI-I; for example, the outmigration of males and the feminization of agriculture in the ZOI-I. How are these dynamics affecting opportunities and constraints for women in the rice, maize, high-value vegetable and other promising agricultural value chains?

2. To identify social norms that define the roles of women and socially excluded groups in these value chains as producers, input suppliers, extension services, transporters, processors and buyers. How do these socially defined roles affect incentives or disincentives for women to participate in and benefit from value chain development? How are these roles changing, especially for young people? What are some promising strategies for changing social norms that currently limit the broader participation of women and socially excluded groups in agricultural market systems?

3. To pinpoint specific opportunities and constraints for the inclusion of women and disadvantaged groups in 1) accessing mechanization services and other productivity-enhancing technologies and 2) diversification into off-farm micro, small and medium scale enterprises (e.g., agro processing, storage, mechanization services, technical services or other value-addition enterprises supporting these value chains)? 3) platforms that improve market linkages within value chains (e.g., cooperatives, Market Planning Committees (MPCs) and other platforms that support access to inputs, technology, aggregation services, storage and markets).

4. To enhance understanding of key areas of women’s disempowerment identified by USAID’s Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) data: autonomy over production, access to and decisions about credit and other resources, leadership and participation in groups, and time use. [2013 Feed the Future Baseline Study].

5. To suggest promising/innovative strategies for promoting the inclusion of women and disadvantaged groups in agriculture market systems - specifically those related to rice, maize, high-value vegetable and other promising value chains - in the ZOI-I.

METHODOLOGY

The GESI analysis was conducted through a literature review of relevant material concerning constraints on and opportunities for GESI in agricultural value chains (AVCs) in the global, regional and national context; interviews with key stakeholders in Kathmandu; and field research in four districts in the ZOI-I (see Appendices II, III and IV). A purposive sampling method was adopted in consultation with USAID/Nepal, CAMRIS International and KISAN project headquarters in Kathmandu. Final selection of value chain actors, including women and some men producer groups, was carried out from Terai and hills. A representative diverse ethnic and gender composition was considered when choosing the sample districts. Four out of 20 districts were chosen from the ZOI-I sites. These were Dailekh, Banke, Dadeldhura and Kanchanpur. Samples of AVC actors were chosen in each district after consultation with KISAN staff there. They included up to six representative women farmers’ groups, up to five cooperatives, area-based district agricultural extension staff—e.g., Junior Technicians and Junior https://www.usaid.gov/opengov/developer/datasets/Nepal%202013%20FTF%20ZOI%20PBS%20Country%20Report%20-%2020140505.pdf

Technical Assistants (JTs/JTAs) from the District Agriculture Development Office (DADO); local support providers; local collectors; members of the local collection team; local traders;

millers/threshers/haulers; transporters; wholesalers; retailers; agro-vets; and district-level traders.

The GESI analysis team consisting of three women and two men, including the study coordinator, visited these districts from 28 April to 12 May, 2016. A team of two members visited the Mid-West region (Team A); and another team (Team B) visited the Far-West region. The field study coordinator rotated his time between these two teams in all four districts. At the onset of each visit, the team members visited the district headquarters and met with the KISAN district coordinators and the project staff and planned a detailed study for the field visits accordingly, based on the project guidance (see Appendix X).

A representative sample of around 20–25 percent of the relevant AVC actors was drawn for the study (see Appendix XI). The team also met relevant government line agencies staffs from DADO, the Women Development Office (WDO), the district chapters of the Federation of District Chambers of Commerce and Industries (FNCCI), international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) and projects (see Appendix III). Besides these stakeholders in the districts, the team also met members of the KISAN project in Kathmandu for discussion (see Appendix II). The team also visited 10 relevant agencies working in the field of AVCs and interacted with 22 members in Kathmandu (see Appendix II).

Furthermore, frequent consultations and meetings with relevant staff members of USAID - GESI Advisor, Agriculture and Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) Specialists, and CAMRIS International staff members -informed and shaped the GESI analysis. USAID staffs’ feedback and meticulous comments have been invaluable.

Various tools were used including Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), including semi-structured questionnaires, focus groups discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews, transect, participant observation and case studies. The literature reviews and interviews in Kathmandu provided added information for analysis.

LIMITATIONS

There were a number of practical limitations encountered during the GESI analysis. First was the inclement and extremely hot weather encountered in the field during the month of May. Summer heat was most intense during field work, at times reaching a sweltering 44 degrees Celsius. Second, it was the busy plantation season of major cereals and vegetable crops in all four districts. Lastly, the training and extension duties of the KISAN project staff during these assessment days kept key senior members extremely busy with their own field work, desk work, reporting and visits to various districts or to HQs in Kathmandu.

FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

Gender and social disparities do exist in the FtF ZOI-I, including the four districts visited. Following are the major findings and conclusions.

The project area represents a complex heterogeneous socio-economic zone where patriarchal culture is strong. It is also an area where there is high concentration of Dalits, DAGs and highly marginalized groups

Male migration is higher in the FtF ZOI-I , which is an important driver for women’s increased work burden and feminization of agriculture

Women across the socio-economic spectrum are getter exposure and taking up more responsibilities beyond the household economy

Socio-economic disparities are notable and women producers tend to get less than fair price for their farm produce

Agricultural extension can be more inclusive, responsive, accountable and transparent to women and men from Dalits, Janajatis and DAGs

Social prejudice, lack of trust prevails and equality and inclusion are below desired levels

Women, Dalits, DAGs and to lesser extent Janajatis are excluded from higher level of AVCs

Young women although better informed and educated are not yet effectively mobilized in AVCs

Productive asset and services for increasing agricultural productivity of women, Dalits and DAGs are not equitably distributed along GESI and AVCs

Women, Dalits and DAGs experience severe levels of cultural, social and structural violence

Agrarian inputs including financial loans are not adequately and equitably addressing women, Dalits and DAGs

There is a need to improve harmonious and collaborative working relationship between project and government staff in order to promote and sustain GESI and GESI related to AVCs

Key factors that limits women, Dalits and DAGs’ access to market are women’s traditional role as home maker, lack of time, information, mobility, financial capital, networking, market platforms, distance from market, transportation and storage facilities

Women in general are also poorly represented in cooperatives and AVCs to effectively market their products

There is a need for mindset change among women and men in a highly patriarchal society in the project area in order to facilitate and ensure GESI

Feminization of agriculture is substantial in the project area thereby burdening women with more responsibilities. Hence, there is a need to ensure that women and particularly women from Dalit and DAGs are included in project activities and that appropriate measures, technologies and management know how applied benefits them.

Social norms such as untouchability and Chaupadi system is strong and there needs to be robust response in terms of awareness, education, advocacy and regulatory framework to overcome such barriers and disparities

Women in general and from Dalit and DAGs can be provided with labor saving devices and support in the form of modern technology and mechanization services

Women’s empowerment can be further enhanced in production level decision making, AVCs, access to resources, business literacy, control over their earned income, group participation and leadership, time and task burden mitigation through modern technology and mechanization devices

Innovative strategies for production augmentation in rice, maize, and high value vegetables in AVCs can be enhanced through quality inputs, efficient production technologies, building capacity for management and entrepreneurship, improved market platforms, know-how, new technologies and new value added products, improved infrastructure and connectivity and good governance and finally

Better practice and stronger internalization of GESI and GESI related AVCs ideologies in the project itself is required

RECOMMENDATIONS

Detailed recommendations are presented in six major areas as below.

RECOMMENDATIONS RELATED TO GENDER AND SOCIAL DISPARITIES

Recommendation 1: Guarantee fair farm gate-price in line with government policies based on market rate to farmers for their products and ensure prompt payment system.

Recommendation 2: Guarantee women, Dalits and DAGs gets equal and equitable services and benefits when providing agrarian services in kind, cash and know-how from the project.

Recommendation 3: Design and deliver training programs, skills training, market related activities and AVCs responsibilities such as collection or market visits by women based on the most vulnerable women group members time constraints and work burden, i.e. Dalits, single mother, female household heads, and DAGs in the project.

Recommendation 4: Guarantee maximum representation of women, women headed households, single mothers, and Dalits in AVCs through a policy guideline of “positive discrimination” in the project. These are in position of collection, MPCs, processors, traders, transporters and whole sellers.

Recommendation 5: Through policy advocacy and working closely with government service providers and commercial banks, ensure that women, Dalits and DAGs are able to obtain financial loans, information on markets and agricultural inputs.

Recommendation 6: Ensure that young women are part of GESI and AVCs development in the project area by collecting baseline data, training, skilling and linking them with project activities.

Recommendation 7: Carry out awareness and education campaigns to eradicate social prejudice, lack of trust and “untouchability” with the “duty bearers” and general society members using multi-pronged media such as radio and TV programs, print media and creative arts.

Recommendation 8: Primary Baseline Data-Set on GESI in the FtF ZOI-I is not available. Carry out such a survey research before the next project commences.

RECOMMENDATIONS RELATED TO SOCIAL NORMS THAT DEFINE THE ROLE OF WOMEN AND

SOCIALLY EXCLUDED GROUPS

Recommendation 9: Ensure that the strong patriarchal culture existing in the project area is mitigated and replaced by Equality and Social Justice provided in the Constitution of Nepal. This can be done by training and changing the mind-set of “Duty Bearers” through a “Rights Based Approach” to strengthen

GESI and GESI in AVCs.

Recommendation 10: Design and implement future project based on an Empowerment approach which considers AVCs from a perspective of women, Dalits and DAGs.

Recommendation 11: Built the capacity and confidence of Dalit, Women and DAGs groups in their small groups first and then attempt this in their larger Cooperatives next.

RECOMMENDATIONS RELATED TO MECHANIZATION SERVICES, MICRO, SMALL AND MEDIUM

SCALE ENTERPRISES, MARKET PLATFORMS

Recommendation 12: Introduce simple mechanization services such as light hand held tractors for women, Dalits and DAGs in each of the project district. Start small, i.e. 10 units in each district.

Recommendation 13: Introduce other labor savings and production enhancing devices, such as, corn-shellers, threshers, haulers, grinders, hoe, sickle and implements. Train village artisans to maintain and manufacture them in the village. Begin small with 10-15 such devices in the first year in each project district. Increase the portfolios each year through trial and error and experiential learning approach.

Recommendation 14: Introduce a common transportation pool in each district in order to market agricultural produce. Begin with one pick-up jeep in one district and let it be run on cost/benefit basis by

Farmers Cooperative. If it succeeds increase the transport pool together with the farmers ensuring a

GESI approach but based on cost center principle.

RECOMMENDATIONS RELATED TO STRATEGIES FOR PROMOTING INCLUSION OF WOMEN

AND DAGS IN MARKET SYSTEMS

Recommendations 15: Guarantee one third number of women and DAGs in the decision making position, i.e. Management Committees of existing market related platforms developed by the project such as MCPs, Cooperatives and women’s groups. This can be carried out through a positive discrimination policy anchored in GESI and GESI in AVCs principles. Enforce this through a robust policy advocacy and guiding principles in the project’s management and implementation manual.

Recommendations 16: Lobby and influence local chamber of commerce, business persons and the private sector in order to secure financial and technical inputs, aggregation services, storage and market access in the private sector in each district. Ensure that these initiatives are responsive and relevant to women, Dalits and DAGs.

RECOMMENDATIONS RELATED TO WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT

Recommendations 17: Develop three key indicators for a women’s empowerment approach specifically relevant to AVCs . The key indicators should have appropriate gender markers against the five WEAI components such as what is to be achieved by the project measured along with (a) decision making over production, (b) access to resources, (c) access to mechanization services, (d) controls over income, (d) participation in group leadership, and time allocation. Develop a monitoring system in the project with these indicators and components.

RECOMMENDATIONS RELATED TO INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES IN AGRICULTURAL MARKET

SYSTEMS

Recommendations 18: Set up a modest Research and Development Fund to support major action research activities on new inputs such as high head drip irrigation; climate resilient agricultural crops, mechanization services, promoting small business development, NTFPs, product development, etc. (3-5 percent of project cost)

Recommendation 19: Utilizing such R&D fund, develop value added processed agricultural products, which can be sold in the markets all over Nepal, especially in the urban centers. Ensure through policy and guiding principles that women, Dalits and DAGs producers are targeted specifically with such action research.

Recommendation 20: Enforce and comply through a policy guideline and guiding principles GESI in the future project itself.

CONTEXT

GLOBAL CONTEXT

Ensuring gender equity and Social Inclusion (GESI) means that programs and projects are able to more effectively identify and analyze gender, caste and ethnic disparities and ensure that reducing disparities and empowering disadvantaged/marginalized groups are considered throughout the design, planning, implementation, documentation, monitoring and evaluation of programs and activities. Disadvantaged groups include women, historically discriminated groups such as Dalits, marginalized groups such as Adivasi Janajatis, sexual minorities, Muslims and people with disabilities. These same groups are also referred to as marginalized groups.

Globally, women contribute time, energy, creativity and knowledge as wage/unpaid workers, farm managers, processors and entrepreneurs to the production, processing and marketing of crops and livestock (FAO, 2011). Their involvement differs significantly across regions, specific crops and activities.

Overall, women comprise 43 percent of the agricultural labor force in developing countries, ranging from 20 percent in Latin America to 50 percent in sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia (Deborah and Manfre, 2014). One defining characteristic of women in agriculture across the world is that they have less access than men to productive assets, resources and opportunities. This gender gap is leading to serious consequences in the agricultural sector, the broader economy, society, and women themselves.

It is argued that more gender-centered policies and programs can ensure higher production and productivity in agriculture sector along with a range of social benefits (ibid). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) attributes under-performance of agriculture to unequal access of women to required resources and opportunities (FAO 2011). Closing this gender gap in agriculture can generate significant gains for the agricultural sector as well as for society and the economy.

Examining GESI in relation to AVCs in South Asia, Fanworth emphasizes the following: 1) understanding women’s and men’s roles and relationships in the chain, 2) examining gender differentials in access to, and control over, key productive assets necessary for participation in the chain and 3) analyzing how gender power relations affect economic rents among actors throughout the chain. It also means responding to the project cycle management appropriately, including considering differentiated roles and responsibilities for men, women and social groups.

Proponents of GESI in AVCs stress that if women had the same access to productive resources, it could significantly increase family yield. This would raise world food production, thereby reducing food deficit and hunger on the one hand and promoting food sufficiency and security on the other. Moreover, at the family and societal levels, it has the potential to strengthen gender equality, productivity and human welfare.

GENDER EQUALITY AND SOCIAL INCLUSION IN AGRICULTURAL VALUE CHAINS IN NEPAL

Generally, the desired GESI components in relation to AVCs outlined in the global context above are missing in Nepal. These gaps often lead to the phenomenon of elite capture of services and resources provided by the government and the international donor projects.

The labor force participation rate of women in Nepal has stood consistently around 80 percent.

Agriculture being the main source of Nepalese livelihoods, women are concentrated in this sector.

Around 70.5 percent of women are employed in agriculture, compared to only 56.3 percent of men.

Women’s contribution to the agriculture economy is 60.5 percent, compared to 39.5 percent for men (Gurung and Bista, 2014). Nepalese women have acquired substantial knowledge and skills in farming systems and natural resource and biodiversity management in different agro-ecosystems. Education and health sector indicators suggest remarkable improvements in women's quality of life. Consequently, Nepalese women, even in the remote rural hinterlands, have improved their agency, mobility and earning capacity. Increasing numbers of women own enterprises and hold leadership positions at community and national levels. Other marginalized communities such as Dalits, Janajatis and disadvantaged groups are also seeing improvement in their quality of life.

Despite this progress, disparities continue in education, access to information, skills, socio-economic services and social capital. Dignity and value of labor is also low in rural areas. The labor class who perform manual work are subjected to various forms of socio-economic, political and structural discrimination. As more male members migrate outside for employment, the agriculture sector has become tangibly feminized. Despite women's crucial role in agriculture, they are not considered farmers in their own right. They have less access, control and decision making agency regarding land and productive assets. Women also are effectively excluded from the benefits of whatever little agrarian reform there is in rural Nepal.

This unsatisfactory situation has led to an increased workload for women, with multiple effects on their health, income, safety, nutrition, protection from violence and ultimately, their social, economic and political empowerment (Gurung and Bista, 2014). As a result, women are unable to substantively improve agricultural productivity on their parcels of land due to the factors mentioned above.

In the absence of a male labor force, many women have begun to plough land, a role traditionally reserved for men. In addition, women continue to carry out weeding, manuring, pruning, harvesting, grading seeds, and food processing. Modest levels of mechanization are available, e.g., simple threshers, mechanical and electrical pumps, haulers and hand-held tractors. The participation of women in substantive AVCs adds more work to their quadruple roles in production, care, reproduction and civic responsibilities.1

Dalit women and those from vulnerable DAGs have even fewer choices to achieve socio-economic and civic empowerment. They are also disproportionately vulnerable to the impact of climate change due to the roles that society has prescribed for them. Women in all groups spend significant time carrying out their traditional roles of caregiving and reproduction. These factors inhibit them from improving their life situation, for example, through participation in business literacy sessions, training programs for building capacity and gainful economic activities like marketing, collection, retailing, wholesaling or trading. It is acknowledged that GESI in AVCs is a challenging and a recently emerging discipline in both a regional and global context. It needs time, persistent efforts and patience to take hold in rural Nepal.

This is why projects such as KISAN can set certain performance standards and act as a role model for government agencies and other development projects to follow.

In recent years, the Government of Nepal (GoN) has incorporated gender equality and social inclusion provisions in its plans and policies. Hence, government institutions have become more supportive and sensitive to GESI now than a decade ago. However, despite these positive trends, wide inequalities in

As more male members from rural households migrate to cities and third countries for employment, rural women are left behind to shoulder the responsibilities of men. Women therefore provide “caregiving” to the family, often for small children, plus their “reproductive role,” combined with the rural household “economic role” and added “civic and political duties” at household and community level.

literacy rates, per capita income, involvement in economic and civic participation, and access to resources persists based on geographic location, ethnicity, caste and gender (USAID, 2011b). According to a study carried out by FAO in 2005, women in the high mountain areas contribute more in agricultural work than men, work more or equal in the middle hills, and work slightly less than men in the Terai (USAID, 2011b). Such work cultures are strongly anchored in social mores and dignity, or pratishta, ascribed to desirable professions. There is more dignity and desirability in out-migrating for jobs to urban areas and overseas than being tied to the farm, so trends in intra- and international migration have a negative impact on GESI and AVC for women and men from Janajatis, Dalits and DAGs.

Women are more involved in minor and subsistence food crops production, such as millet, maize and soybean, while men are more involved in cash crops, such as rice grown on a larger scale in the Terai region (USAID, 2011b). Studies have reported that women work longer hours and have greater workloads than men. Men are busy only during peak seasons, while women are engaged throughout the season. Gender differentiation in farming activities exist within each region and across all socio-cultural parameters. On average, a Nepali woman works three hours longer a day than does a man (Gautam, 1999 in USAID, 2011b) and their activities are more concentrated in cereal crops and in planting, manuring, weeding, hoeing, harvesting, threshing, storage and livestock management. In post-harvest operations, their involvement is also greater than men's, especially in cleaning, grading, storing and packing for sale. Activities usually limited to men include land preparation and plowing, digging pits for orchard trees, irrigation, application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides/insecticides, and pruning orchards (USAID, 2011b).

In Nepal, most value chain projects implemented to date have focused on agricultural commodities or products. This is logical given that 77 percent of the country’s population depends on the agricultural sector. Approaches applied in Nepal generally focus on high-value commodities, as defined by the per unit (kg) cost of these commodities. Within these value chains, projects have sought to transform value chain relationships in order to shift the balance of power through the formation and empowerment of groups, cooperatives, federations or associations. They also have tended to empower the private sector and improve value chain governance. High value crops, which are also appropriate in the context of small-holdings, can provide much higher income than cereal crops. They are often labor intensive and offer higher returns per hectares. Value chains around vegetables, tea and potatoes have attracted private investment in storage and processing, which has also strengthened value chains. In some instances, farmer groups have invested in modest local storage facilities that have helped bring better returns. Farm-to-highway linkages in the form of roads or bridges built and maintained by the community have provided substantial economic impact to communities. There is strong evidence that demonstrates that when stakeholders collaborate effectively, such actions lead to overcoming constraints along the market chain and realizing the benefits from high-value crops in Nepal (ADB undated).

The actual number or percentage of women formally enrolled in value chain related interventions is difficult to establish, as is the case for the Dalit, Janajatis and other marginalized communities. In fact, they are increasingly being embedded in different agricultural value chains and sometimes in more than one chain. Their participation in these chains have both empowered them and improved their income status and agency. At the same time, it has added to their work load and time constraints. Natural disasters, soil degradation, water scarcity, decreasing agricultural production and sometimes crop failures also augment their stress and challenges (Gurung and Bista, 2014). Budget allocations are often silent on how to enhance women’s strategic position by recognizing them as independent and autonomous farmers, ensuring their access to the means of production, enhancing their competence and acceptance as leaders, and improving their position in different structures of the government, non-government and private sectors (ADB, 2013).

The feminization of agriculture, together with gender vulnerability to climate change has led to social distresses including gender-based violence (GBV), violence against women and girls (VAW), trafficking-in-persons (TIP), lack of quality health services and poor access to education for young women, girls and boys. Due to increased workload, drudgery and time constraints, women are being alienated from vital adaptive knowledge. They are also unable to grab opportunities to improve their knowledge, skills and livelihood strategies (Gurung and Bista, 2014).

GENDER EQUALITY AND SOCIAL INCLUSION IN FEED THE FUTURE ZOI-I AGRICULTURAL VALUE

CHAINS

The 20 hill and Terai districts under the FtF ZOI-I represent a complex heterogeneous and highly polarized socio-economic scenario in Nepal. It is also a swathe of land in Nepal where patriarchal culture is dominant. So-called high-caste Brahmin/Chhetri and Thakuri men and women are at the top of the socio-economic pyramid as per existing social norms. These norms and mores also determine the values, roles, networks and images assigned to Janajatis, Dalits and DAGs. Furthermore, there are a sizable number of groups who are marginalized because of their traditional occupations despite legislation by the State to abolish such practices. Similarly, caste discrimination exists in the Terai as well against Muslims and Tharus. They are often perceived as inferior to mainstream communities, and some are designated as untouchables, limited by activities they can perform and making them unable to function fully within households, in temples and at the market. In addition, the practice of segregating/ostracizing women during their menstrual period continues unabated. Besides these groups, there are also a sizeable number of women-headed households, widows and persons with disabilities (PWD) in the FtF ZOI-I.

The Status of Women in Nepal report (SOWN, 2012) notes a high degree of gender disparity in land ownership in all communities irrespective of caste or ethnicity across Nepal. The gender disparity in landholding size was also high, with average size for women at 0.05 hectares (ha) compared to 0.44 ha for men. Furthermore, the National Social Inclusion Survey, 2012 reports 14 percent of the hill and Terai Dalit groups, together with DAGs, are landless. Landlessness is as high as 40 percent in these groups (NSIS, 2012). Together, with landlessness, 31 percent of households of hill Dalits are headed by women in the absence of men. This is an important factor in AVCs, as reportedly 18 percent of households are headed by women in the overall FtF ZOI-I (NSIS, 2012).

Women’s role in household decision-making is important for the AVC in rural Nepal. There is a general trend to take joint decisions regarding household economy, with 72–75 percent of decisions made jointly. Yet, in the Tharu communities, such as in Dang district, 65 percent decisions were made by men.

This is due to the joint family system prevalent among Tharu households (SOWN, 2012). Moreover, 40 percent of men initiated the decision-making process compared to only 20 percent of women, especially when it is related to land, building or substantial investment efforts. Women across castes also lag behind in decision-making when it came to borrowing cash for agriculture, livestock management and handicrafts. Sale of cash crops and subsistence crops, milk, vegetables and cottage industries products also required male consent. Such situations exist in Kanchanpur, Bardiya, Banke and much of other hill and Terai districts as well. When decision-making roles favor men over women, much of the potential for GESI is obstructed in higher AVCs in the rural economy. The communities affected include not only Tharus but also Muslim, Dalit, and DAGs. The circumstances of the other highly marginalized groups, e.g., Kamaiya, Kamalari, Haliya, Charauwa, Haruwa, Badis, and Deaukis, are equally challenging if not more vulnerable (Based on GESI Field Study, May 2016).

In this background of ingrained patriarchal culture, coupled with a set of complex gender disparities and socio-economic class/caste divisions, formidable challenges exist in the project to include GESI in AVCs.

This is due to the fact that harmony, an atmosphere of trust and active mutual support, including community cohesions, are weak (Based on GESI Field Study, May 2016).

Therefore, development of AVCs in the FtF ZOI-I should consider the following:

Agricultural value chains are embedded in a relevant social context that reflects gender relations from the household to the market level. Female-headed households and landless DAGs are given priority during project activities such as building their capacity, enhancing their ownership of assets or acquiring special skills.

Value chain development affects gender roles and relations and brings in shifts in allocation of responsibilities in a household, often increasing demands on women’s labor. Consider scheduling training and market-oriented activities according to women’s time and task convenience.

Gender equity and value chain competitiveness are mutually supportive goals. Ensure that project activities are designed as affirmative actions, giving priority to women, women-headed households and DAGs.

Include highly marginalized groups and DAGs without land into project activities, such as collectors, processors, transporters and sellers in AVCs through affirmative actions.

FINDINGS

Major findings of the GESI analysis are reported in the following sections (A) through (E):

There are some noticeable differences between the general observations for the KISAN project, the ones drawn from reports and literature reviews (Chapter II) and the specific field study findings of the GESI analysis (Chapter III). These are noted below in each of the sub-headings from (A) through (F).

(A) OVERVIEW OF GENDER AND SOCIAL DISPARITIES

The main areas where gender disparities are significant are literacy and education and WEAI, a summary index of women's empowerment, agency and inclusion.2 The latter is reported in Chapter V below.

Out of 10 indicators used in WEAI, men and women were close at only one indicator: input in productive decisions.

This situation severely affects women's access to control over resources such as land labor, technologies and financial services. The primary drivers of gender and social disparities in ZOI-I appear to be: a) different levels of educational attainment, b) ownership and control over assets, c) group exposure, d) workload, e) access to decision on credit, and f) autonomy on production.

Besides these other significant factors are: prompt payment for sale of agricultural products; fair farm-gate price; efficient extension; effective market planning committees (MPCs); fair trade by collectors, traders and wholesalers; enhancement of trust and mitigation of prejudicial behaviors; and inclusion of young women in AVCs.

Prompt payment and fair return on investment, including fair farm-gate price

The GESI disparities mentioned in global and national contexts highlighted in the previous sections of this report conforms to the specific field-based trends reported in this section. Specifically, there are disparities in the ratio of returns of what women producers get as the farm-gate price, compared to what traders and retailers get for the same products from the market. At times, the market prices are 4– 5 times the farm-gate price. Primary producers get discouraged when they come to know about this substantial difference. Women and DAGs in Dailekh, Banke, Dadeldhura and Kanchanpur reported that prompt payment and cash flows are a major bottleneck. They often get late payment from the wholesalers, traders and collectors. It is reported that it can take three to four days—or even months— for women and DAGs to get paid for their vegetables and cereals. In the case of sugar cane, it may take a full year in places such as Kanchanpur. The late payment issue was reported by all women producer groups the study team met in the four districts. The women respondents were unanimous in suggesting that it should change in the future for improved and prompt return on their product and investment.

These included payment for labor and management towards the crops they produce and sell (see Appendix IV).3

Agricultural extension and discrimination in services provided

Agricultural extensions, including an existing “agrarian package” of input(s) in FtF’s four assessment districts, play important roles in meeting the project goals. These goals include, among others, food security; enhanced livelihoods and employment; and the introduction of new technologies including seeds, fertilizers and pesticides for improved production leading to improved nutrition and discernible surplus for local markets.

Discrimination in agricultural inputs and financial services, including market outlet

Another significant disparity reported is in extension and technical services, group organizing, information dissemination and financial services, which reportedly are usually provided to mainstream Brahmin/Chhetri women groups (including Janajatis, e.g., Magars and Tharus) compared to Dalits and Muslims. Dalits and Muslim women are excluded more severely from many forms of services available in adjacent Tharu or Magar communities. Similarly, a number of groups and cooperatives reported that the ones who produce lower volumes or values are ignored by collectors and traders. Their efforts are less lucrative, and women farmers are unable to obtain the services of the local collectors and active participation and facilitation from the local market planning committees (MPCs).4

This issue, as well as other emerging evidence from the KISAN project field study are based on the discussions, response and evidence gathered from the four sampled districts: Dailekh and Banke (Mid-West) and Dadeldhura and

Kanchanpur (Far-West). These are the results of focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant person (KIP) interviews and case studies, inter alia. These stakeholders represented between 20 and 30 percent of the value chain actors (VCA) in the KISAN project. Women consisted of 75 percent of producers in the sampleThe details of the primary and secondary stakeholders interviewed during the GESI field study assessment are given in Appendix XI.

The “mosaic” of farmers groups in the four GESI assessment districts (Dailekh, Banke, Dadeldhura and

Kanchanpur) are as follows: KISAN projects normally promote women farmers, and the assessment team was

Social prejudices, lack of trust and exclusion

There were also a number of cases illustrating how social prejudices and lack of trust and suspicion can be major impediments to inclusion in AVCs. For instance, an entire Dalit settlement next to a Tharu settlement was not considered for inclusion by the project in Kanchanpur. In another case, a Badi settlement in Dailekh bordering Accham was not included in the project activities. These DAGs were perceived by the project staff as too difficult to embrace and too challenging for community mobilization. Likewise, a community of re-settled Kamaiya in Kanchanpur next to a Tharu settlement was un-touched by the project activities. The project staff admitted that there are substantial opportunities for enhancing the inclusion of women and marginalized groups in the project area. (Based on GESI Analysis, May 2016 during District Validation Workshops in Dailekh, Dadeldhura, Kanchanpur.)

Exclusion of young women in AVCs

A general trend of exclusion or discrimination is reported by young women and girls in all four districts (see Appendix IV). These include those who are newly married and have moved into their in-law’s home.

Others are still living with their parents, waiting for marriage or opportunities for jobs and further studies. Besides them are adolescent girls who are school drop-outs and have no means to take up further studies or gainful employment. The married ones are discriminated by their in-laws and are confined to their homes - which is largely to do with cultural norms—so they are unable to contribute meaningfully in AVCs. The others are vulnerable and prone to sexual and domestic violence or TIP. They are thus unable to participate meaningfully in AVCs in the absence of a specific GESI focus (Based on GESI Field Study, May 2016 and FGDs in the district, See also Appendices IV).

(A.1) KEY FACTORS THAT AFFECT ACCESS TO RESOURCES

The main factors that affect access to resources for increasing productivity are land, labor, extension services, inputs, new technologies and financial services.

Dalits, DAGs and single women or female-headed households have many more challenges obtaining resources for increasing productivity

Caste-based prejudice towards the lower social status groups in a patriarchal society makes it much harder to obtain the necessary resources to improve agricultural productivity. The story of land-poor Dalit women who had emigrated with her family over a decade ago illustrates this case in point. But they are a resilient lot. The women and others like her not only have stood up to various forms of discrimination and prejudicial behaviors from group members, but have also managed to cope and provide material well-being to family members. They feel that by providing good education to their children, the future generations will be in a better position to deal with such challenges. Having traditional marketable skills like tailoring has also helped such groups supplement their family income.

informed that 90 percent were women and 10 percent were men. A negligible few were mixed women-men farmers groups. In Dailekh, these were Brahmin/Chhetri, Magars and Dalits. In Banke, these were hill and Terai

Brahmin/Chhetris, Muslims, Tharus and Dalits. In Dadeldhura, these were most Chhetri/Thakuris and Dalits. In

Kanchanpur, these were Tharus, hill and Terai Brahmin/Chhetris, and Dalits. All four study sites reported high out-migration of males to cities and third countries resulting in an added burden to women and women-headed households. Feminization of agriculture was perceptible and high as observed and reported by the GESI assessment team members (Based on GESI Field Assessment, May 2016).

Agrarian inputs are directed predominantly to men and socio-economic village elites

Women, Dalits and DAGs often reported lack of access to agricultural extension generally, with negative impacts on adoption of inputs and new technologies. Agricultural extension and information on new technologies are often exclusively directed to men. Women may be favored in access to certain assets, such as microfinance, but overall, they are in a disadvantaged position compared to men. Such situations often result in a lower rate of interaction with extension agents and significantly weaken the bargaining power of women, Dalits and DAGs in negotiating and managing vertical and horizontal relationships. It is important to note that different social groups enjoy differential access to resources required for increasing productivity and face dissimilar barriers. Likewise, men and women across all caste and ethnic communities have different levels of access to educational and business opportunities in the value chains.

In the four districts where the field study was conducted, women, DAGs and Janajatis were found to be confined to production-related activities. Janajati women, such as Magar women in Dailekh and Tharu and women in Kanchanpur and Banke, had progressed a bit further into AVCs and were able to run collection centers. The men were either residing outside the village as migrant workers or, in many cases, unhelpful in household activities due to alcoholism or gambling addictions (Hamrologni/purusmanche haru jandh khayara ya din rat teshai tashkheli basnu huncha). Women face physical problems from their daily chores or psychological or physical abuse from the men they are related to.