61-0381-19_Specs.pdf

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Specifications for a

X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Suite

(XPS Suite)

1.0 Scope

This specification describes the minimum technical requirements and the minimum acceptable performance standards for an X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Suite (XPS Suite) to be installed by the contractor at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), Washington, DC. The XPS

Suite will be placed in a multiple-user facility. Therefore, it must be user-friendly for performing standard and advanced surface analysis, as well as provide ease of maintenance, troubleshooting, and calibration.

2.0 Installation Site

The XPS Suite will be installed in Building 207, Chemistry Division, Naval Research

Laboratory, 4555 Overlook Ave. SW, Washington, DC 20375.

3.0 Description and Primary Components

The Naval Research Laboratory plans to purchase an XPS Suite that will serve as a shared surface analytical facility for NRL users. The suite will be used to analyze the surface chemistry and composition for a wide range of samples from electrically conducting to electrically insulating, from magnetic to non-magnetic, including metals, dielectrics, semiconductors, ceramics, polymers, powders, and nanoparticles. The nature of the materials under study require that magnetic fields shall not be applied to samples during XPS or UPS measurements.

The XPS Suite must include the following primary components:

(a) High Throughput Multi-Analysis capability – an ultra high vacuum (UHV) environment equipped with an electron energy analyzer, an X-ray source with monochromator, a

Helium I/II UV light source, a motorized sample stage, an Argon cluster ion source, a charge neutralization device, and digital cameras for sample viewing with substantial automation for high throughput and for unattended measurement is required;

(b) Sample introduction– sample introduction from the laboratory atmosphere to ultra high vacuum environment will be via a vacuum lock chamber;

(c) Angle Resolved XPS – a capability for rapid analysis of thin films on up to 100mm diameter semiconductor wafers using Angle Resolved XPS is required;

(d) Pumps and Gauges – one or more vacuum pumps and vacuum gauges connected to the vacuum chambers sufficient to meet and verify all vacuum requirements herein;

(e) Electronics – all associated electrical and electronic equipment required for operation and control of suite components including all necessary software and computer(s).

4.0 UHV Requirements for Vacuum Analytical Components

4.1 All vacuum analytical components are housed in vacuum chambers constructed out of a metal or metal alloy that provides sufficient magnetic shielding for optimal XPS and UPS performance, must be compatible with a UHV environment, and with all materials and procedures required to maintain a UHV environment.

4.2 A chamber enclosing vacuum analytical components (“analysis chamber”) must have an

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NRL XPS Suite Specifications automatic baking function.

4.3 Analysis chamber base pressure after baking and cooling must be guaranteed at 5 x 10-9 mbar or below thus providing a UHV environment for surface analysis. The specified base pressure may be achieved by an ion pump, a turbomolecular pump with dry (e.g. scroll) pump backing, or a combination of such pumps.

4.4 Analysis chamber shall have adequate pumping capacity such that the vacuum pressure does not exceed 5 x 10-7 mbar when charge neutralization, ion source, or helium lamp are operating at performance specified in this document.

4.5 Analysis chamber shall be fitted with an auxiliary titanium sublimation pump (TSP). The

TSP must contain at least three (3) filaments and be capable of operating in automatic and manual modes.

4.6 The vacuum hardware and control electronics must be such that, in the event of a power or other utility (e.g. compressed air) failure, a sudden in-rush of gas (e.g. air, nitrogen, argon or helium) is avoided. During the first 30 minutes of such an outage, analysis chamber pressure of 5x10-3 mbar or less must be maintained in analysis chamber. Vacuum gauges must be interlocked such that vacuum hardware components are automatically and safely shutdown with the loss of power. Upon restoration of power, vacuum hardware and control electronics must support an automatic and safely-sequenced system recovery.

5.0 Sample Introduction Requirements

5.1 Sample introduction via a “Vacuum Lock” is required to pumpdown samples (and associated sample holder, etc) from atmosphere to high vacuum (or better), followed by transfer into the UHV environment for analysis, as well as the reverse process.

5.2 An introduction chamber must be constructed out of a metal or metal alloy that is compatible with an UHV environment and with all the procedures required to maintain an

UHV environment such as baking the system.

5.3 An introduction chamber must be pumped using a turbomolecular pump with dry (e.g.

scroll) pump backing.

5.4 Vacuum gauging is required consistent with routine vacuum of an introduction chamber

(e.g. including 5 x 10-8 mbar to 1 bar).

5.5 An introduction chamber must be connected to the analysis chamber via an automated

UHV-compatible gate valve.

5.6 To enable examination of loose samples, such as powders, individual particles, or fragile sheets, sample transfer shall be accomplished while maintaining a horizontal sample platen (tilt from horizontal < 2° during transfer).

5.7 The sample transfer pathway from the laboratory atmosphere into an introduction chamber and subsequently to the multi-analysis measurement position, must accommodate a

(minimum 60mm square) sample carrier plus samples with heights from 0 mm to 20 mm mounted at any position within the central 60 mm x 60 mm area of the sample carrier.

5.8 The transfer pathway from the laboratory atmosphere into an introduction chamber and subsequently to the ARXPS measurement position, must accommodate up to a 100mm diameter semiconductor wafer (thickness ≤ 1mm) with flat.

5.9 Sample introduction to the high throughput multi-analysis measurement position shall be highly automated such that after loading samples into an introduction chamber, the

Page | 3 remaining steps along sample transfer pathway are controlled, via the operator computer interface, in such a manner that only high level commands are required, with pumpdown, valve sequencing, stage motion and the mechanical transfer operation, all under automatic control.

5.10 A vacuum transfer module is required with capability to transfer samples, without atmospheric exposure, from the evacuated module, into the introduction chamber, and subsequently to the multi-analysis measurement position.

6.0 Multi-Analysis Electron Energy Analyzer Requirements

for High Throughput XPS

6.1 The electron energy analyzer with its multichannel detector (MCD) must be capable of operating in both scanned analyzer electron energy and static analyzer electron energy (e.g.

“snapshot” or “parallel”) acquisition modes.

6.2 The MCD must have at least 100 electron energy channels.

6.3 The analyzer input lens system must be capable of efficiently collecting photoelectrons in both large (>100 μm) and small (<100 μm) analyzed area modes.

6.4 Any required adjustments of analyzer or input lens parameters for switching between different acquisition modes must be performed automatically by the control software.

6.5 The analyzer must achieve the following resolution and sensitivity specifications using a monochromated Al Kα x-ray source and the Ag 3d5/2 peak from a sputter-cleaned Ag sample at the multi-analysis sample position.

• A combined (analyzer and Al Kα x-ray source) ultimate energy resolution of < 0.5 eV.

• The sensitivity of at least 4,000,000 cps at resolution of ≤ 1.0 FWHMeV when operated in a large area mode (measured from an analysis area determined by an X-ray spot that lies within a diameter such that 100 µm ≤ diameter ≤ 400 µm).

• The sensitivity of at least 200,000 cps at an electron energy resolution of ≤ 1.0 eV when operated in a small area mode (measured from an analysis area ≤ 30 µm in diameter).

• The sensitivity of at least 80,000 cps at an electron energy resolution of ≤ 1.0 eV when operated in a small area mode (measured from an analysis area ≤ 15 µm in diameter).

The energy resolution and sensitivity are defined, respectively, as the full width at half maximum (FWHM) in eV and intensity in cps of the Ag 3d5/2 peak measured after removal ofalinearly interpolated background. Both spot size and sensitivity should be determined with the sample normal parallel to the axis of the transfer lens. Specifications shall be demonstrated using the anode power recommended for routine analysis at each spot size.

7.0 X-ray Source Requirements

7.1 A monochromated Al Kα x-ray source is required for performing high-resolution chemical state analysis.

7.2 Using an in-situ sputter-cleaned Ag sample at the multi-analysis sample position, the monochromated Al Kα x-ray source must be capable of producing an energy resolution of

≤ 0.5 eV, where the energy resolution is defined as FWHM in eV of the Ag 3d5/2 peak measured after removal of a linearly interpolated background.

7.3 The monochromated Al Kα x-ray source must be able to selectively illuminate a chosen analysis area on the sample.

7.4 For selected area analysis, the x-ray illuminated spot size and position on the sample must

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7.5 An ultimate spatial resolution of ≤ 15 µm, determined by the X-ray illuminated spot diameter is required (see section 13 Small Area XPS Analysis and Imaging

Requirements).

7.6 The monochromated Al Kα x-ray source must be compatible with an “ON/OFF” & “spot size selection” mode of operation.

7.7 Use of the monochromated Al Kα x-ray source must not routinely require adjustment of x-ray source operating parameters by individual users.

7.8 The instrument control software must be able to operate the monochromated Al Kα x-ray source automatically, including x-ray On/Off and x-ray spot size selection.

8.0 UV Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS) Requirements

8.1 A vacuum ultraviolet lamp (UV Lamp), with optimized operation conditions for each of

Helium I and Helium II emission lines, is required for performing Ultraviolet

Photoemission Spectroscopy (UPS) on samples at the multi-analysis measurement position.

8.2 Using an in-situ sputter-cleaned Ag sample at the multi-analysis measurement position and Helium I radiation from the UV Lamp, a peak count rate of ≥ 2,000,000 cps must be achieved at the Ag 4d peak maximum while the Ag Fermi edge width is ≤ 0.120 eV (the energy difference between the points at which the photoelectron intensity is 20% and 80% of the maximum value below the Fermi level).

8.3 The ability to apply electrical bias to samples during UPS to overcome the low energy cutoff set by electron energy analyzer work function must be provided.

8.4 The UV Lamp must be compatible with an “ON/OFF” & “He I/He II” mode of operation.

8.5 Use of the UV Lamp must not routinely require adjustment of operating parameters by individual users.

8.6 The instrument control software must be able to operate the UV lamp automatically, including UV Lamp On/Off, selection between optimized He I and He II operating conditions, and selection of sample bias.

9.0 Sample Stage Requirements

9.1 A sample stage is required for positioning the sample surface under study at a measurement position. The sample stage must be motorized, fully automated, and controlled via the operator interface computer.

9.2 Requirements for sample stage positioning differ depending upon whether sample is being positioned for multi-analysis measurement, or ARXPS measurement.

9.3 For multi-analysis measurement, the sample stage must be capable of at least 4 axes of movement: X Y Z and support continuous azimuthal sample rotation about the platen normal. Z is the direction along the sample platen normal, and X and Y lie in the plane of the (horizontal) sample platen.

9.4 For ARXPS measurement, the sample stage must be capable of at least 5 axes of movement: X Y Z and support both tilt and continuous azimuthal sample rotation.

9.5 The instrument control software must be able to operate the sample stage automatically, Page | 5 including moving to predefined positions for sample analysis and performing continuous compucentric azimuthal rotation during sputter profiling.

9.6 Sample stage automation must include the capability to automatically optimize the Z

(height) position of the sample for analysis, based on photoelectron signal intensity.

9.7 Sample stage must be capable of accepting transfer of a sample holder or platen (as described in section 5.7) carrying samples, each with similar sample height up to 20mm, distributed within the central 60 mm x 60 mm area of the holder, and selectively position each of those samples at the multi-analysis measurement position.

9.8 Sample stage must be capable of accepting transfer of a semiconductor wafer (as described in section 5.8) up to 100mm in diameter and thickness ≤ 1mm, and selectively position any location within a 70 mm x 70 mm area of the wafer for ARXPS measurement including takeoff angles of +20° through +80°.

9.9 A selection of sample holders must be provided for high throughput XPS at the multi-analysis measurement position, that span these functionalities (note that a single holder may satisfy more than one functionality):

• Holder(s) or platen(s) of at least 60 mm square suitable for multiple small samples;

• Holder(s) or platen(s) compatible with compucentric azimuthal rotation;

• Holder(s) or platen(s) for powder samples;

9.10 A selection of sample holders must be provided for ARXPS measurement, that span these functionalities (note that a single holder may satisfy more than one functionality):

• Holder(s) or platen(s) of at least 60 mm square suitable for multiple small samples;

• Holder(s) or platen(s) compatible with tilt and compucentric azimuthal rotation;

• Holder(s) or platen(s) compatible with 100mm diameter wafers for ARXPS measurement;

9.11 Each sample holder must be provided with a full set of sample mounting hardware, such as sample mounting screws and clips.

10.0 Ion Source Requirements

10.1 Both argon cluster, and monatomic, ion source capabilities are required at the multi-analysis measurement position for sputter cleaning and chemical depth profiling of hard and soft materials.

10.2 The cluster ion source must provide high performance for sample cleaning or depth profiling, capable of 75 to 2000 atom selectable cluster size, selectable ion energies from

2keV to 8keV.

10.3 In this section spot size refers to the smallest circular aperture (centered at the measurement position) through which greater than 50% of the ion flux passes.

10.4 At an operating ion energy of 4 keV and a cluster size of 2000 argon atoms, the cluster ion source must produce an ion beam current ≥ 7 nA within a spot size ≤ 700 µm.

10.5 At an operating ion energy of 8 keV and a cluster size of 2000 argon atoms, the cluster ion source must produce an ion beam current ≥ 10 nA within a spot size ≤ 700 µm.

10.6 Argon monatomic ion source capability is required at the ARXPS measurement position for sputter cleaning and chemical depth profiling.

10.7 The monatomic ion source must provide high performance for sample cleaning or depth profiling, with selectable ion energies from 500 eV to 4 keV.

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10.8 At an operating ion energy of 4 keV, using argon, the monatomic ion source must produce an ion beam current ≥ 2.2 μA within a spot size ≤ 800 µm at the measurement position.

10.9 All ion source operating parameters, including the Ar gas flow, cluster size (cluster ion source only), ion energy, etc., must be under full control of the instrument control software.

10.10 All ion sources must provide continuous long-term stability and sputter rate reproducibility.

11.0 Sample Charge Neutralization Requirements

11.1 The sample charge neutralization system must provide reliable charge compensation on non-conductive samples for all configurations of the X-ray source (e.g. all available spot sizes) and analyzer.

11.2 The sample charge neutralization system must provide reliable charge compensation on non-conductive samples for both high-throughput multi-analysis XPS/UPS and for

ARXPS.

11.3 The sample charge neutralization system must be based on using a combination of electrons and low-energy positive Ar ions to flood the sample.

11.4 A single mode of operation must provide the optimal charge neutralization for all sample and experiment types. That is, the charge neutralization system must be compatible with an “ON/OFF” mode of operation.

11.5 Effective use of the charge neutralization system must not routinely require adjustment

(tuning) of operating parameters by individual users.

11.6 The charge neutralization system must set the Ar flow automatically.

11.7 Configured for high-throughput XPS, on a fresh and clean specimen of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) illuminated by the monochromated Al Kα x-ray source, the charge neutralization system must be able to produce, a symmetric O-C=O C1s component of ≤

0.82 eV FWHM while maintaining a C-C C1s component count rate of 15,000 cps, after data processing that includes a Shirley background removal and symmetric peak fitting over each C ls envelope.

11.8 Configured for ARXPS, on a fresh and clean specimen of polyethylene terephthalate

(PET) illuminated by the monochromated Al Kα x-ray source, the charge neutralization system must be able to produce, a symmetric O-C=O C1s component of ≤ 0.85 eV

FWHM while maintaining a C-C C1s component count rate of 6,000 cps, after data processing that includes a Shirley background removal and symmetric peak fitting over each C ls envelope.

12.0 Sample Viewing System Requirements

12.1 The sample viewing system must provide the main view digital images of the sample at the analysis position, with lateral resolution sufficient to identify areas for analysis by small area spectroscopy.

12.2 The sample viewing system must provide digital images of an additional view at the sample analysis position, with lateral resolution comparable to the main view, in order to produce correct sample alignment for analysis by small area spectroscopy. The second view may be optical or produced by imaging secondary electron emission from the

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12.3 Precise alignment of the above two views must be performed during the system installation.

12.4 The sample viewing system must provide means for optimizing the viewing conditions based on the surface properties of the sample such as roughness and reflectivity.

12.5 The sample viewing system must be capable to record the digital images corresponding to the area being analyzed. The recorded images must be available for subsequent viewing, printing, and exporting.

12.6 A digital photographic image is required of the entire sample platen area that is accessible to electron spectroscopy measurement. This image shall be available for the operator to automatically navigate from sample to sample on the platen. This image may be achieved with the sample viewing systems as described above, or separately.

13.0 Small Area XPS Analysis and Imaging Requirements

13.1 At the multi-analysis sample measurement position, a lateral resolution of ≤ 15 µm is required for small area XPS analysis and for imaging on all types of samples, where the lateral resolution is defined as the distance between the points at which the Ag 3d5/2 peak intensity is 20% and 80% of the maximum value in a line scan or image, across a silver coated knife-edge.

13.2 The XPS suite and control software must be capable to produce chemical maps with lateral resolution of ≤ 15 µm, both as two-dimensional images and as one-dimensional line scans. A capability must be provided to acquire multiple spectral regions in a snapshot mode (electron energy dispersive mode across the MCD) at each position of a chemical map.

14.0 Angle Resolved XPS (ARXPS) requirements

14.1 A specialized capability is required to routinely perform and analyze angle resolved XPS

(ARXPS) for thin film layer characterization on up to 100 mm diameter semiconductor wafers (< 1mm thickness), with monatomic argon ion source (per section 10), with effective charge neutralization on electrically insulating materials (per section 11), and with a method of viewing and of aligning samples in the ARXPS measurement position.

14.2 The capability for small spot area ARXPS analysis is required with lateral resolution selectable from ≤ 15 µm to 400 µm or larger. Control software must be capable to produce maps at the selected lateral resolution, both as two-dimensional images and as one-dimensional line scans.

14.3 Configured for ARXPS, and at recommended anode power for routine analysis, shall meet or exceed a detection sensitivity characterized by achieving ≤1.0 eV FWHM of the silver

3d5/2 and with a peak height integrated over all takeoff angles of ≥ 400,000 cps after removal of a linearly interpolated background while using an X-ray spot size of ≤ 400 µm on a silver specimen.

14.4 Configured for ARXPS, and at recommended anode power for routine analysis, shall meet or exceed a detection sensitivity characterized by achieving ≤1.0 eV FWHM of the silver

3d5/2 and with a peak height integrated over all takeoff angles of ≥ 25,000 cps after removal of a linearly interpolated background while using an X-ray spot size of ≤ 20 µm on a silver specimen.

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14.5 The range of simultaneously accessible take-off angles must include +20° to +80°, where

0° corresponds to emission normal to the sample surface (aka normal emission). Thereby enabling ARXPS without tilt.

14.6 Selection of any location within a 70 mm x 70 mm area of a 100 mm wafer must be accessible to ARXPS measurement that include takeoff angles of +20° through +80°.

14.7 Capability is required to automatically record, under software control, complete angle resolved XPS with minimum selectable angular increment ≤ 1 degree over a take-off angle range of ≥ 60°.

15.0 Operator Interface and Software Requirements

15.1 All required operator interface computers and software for the regular operation, data analysis, and control of the XPS suite shall be provided.

15.2 The operator interface for instrument control, data acquisition, data retrieval, and analysis shall be via the Microsoft Windows operating system (Windows 10 Professional, or later, version).

15.3 The US English standard keyboard layout is preferred for an operator interface computer.

15.4 The operator interface computer(s) shall perform as a keyboard- and mouse-controlled interface.

15.5 Control software must be compatible with the (sequential) system operation by multiple users (compatible with as many as 100 distinct users) either via an internal multi-user interface or by another method, such as the individual login into one of many Windows user accounts on an operator interface computer.

15.6 Control software must log and save system settings and parameters for each measurement.

The saved settings must be available for subsequent repeat of the measurement sequence, and for viewing, printing, or exporting in text or tabulated format by the originating user.

15.7 The XPS data must be stored by the software, following the directory and filename conventions chosen by the users. The stored data must be available for subsequent viewing, printing, or exporting as formatted text.

15.8 The control software must provide measurement modes that are automated for system operation either in unsupervised mode following a user-determined set of instructions, or in a mode that requires minimal operator input for repetitive tasks such as sputter depth profiling, measuring multiple points on a sample, or acquiring chemical maps.

15.9 Analysis software must include features that automate and/or assist users with routine analytical tasks, such as identification of elemental peaks in the spectrum and quantification of the nominal sample composition using predefined sensitivity factors.

15.10 Analysis software must include automated options for processing multi-level datasets, including depth profiles and multi-layers, line scans, chemical maps, and angle-resolved datasets. The automation options should include the ability to repeat or batch analyze similar spectra without repeated entry of all analysis parameters.

15.11 A Naval Research Laboratory-wide license (site license) for unlimited installed copies of the complete data analysis software package must be provided for installation in Naval

Research Laboratory owned Windows 10 Professional computer workstations. This is in addition to the software provided on operator interface computer(s) for instrument control, data acquisition, and data analysis.

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16.0 System Layout and Configuration Requirements

16.1 The XPS suite will be installed in a standard laboratory module at the Naval Research

Laboratory and will serve as a multi-user facility. Accordingly the overall system layout and configuration must be optimized to minimize the system footprint, while maintaining easy access for users and for servicing the instrument.

16.2 The vacuum components must be configured in a manner that minimizes the number of cables and hoses that must be disconnected for bake-out. Bake-out equipment such as fans and heater elements, must be integrated with the vacuum chambers and the system enclosures.

16.3 The power supplies and control electronics must be designed, arranged and integrated in modular fashion, which will allow the customer or the service engineers to easily remove and replace individual modules and boards.

17.0 Automation and Calibration Requirements

17.1 In order to be operated in a multi-user environment, the XPS suite and control software must include automated features for data acquisition, sample handling, vacuum control and gas handling, and for operating x-ray source, spectrometer, ion source, charge neutralization and UV lamp.

17.2 The data acquisition automation must include the ability to navigate between predefined sample positions, to acquire user-specified spectra in scanned and snapshot modes, to acquire user-specified line scans and chemical maps, and to perform multiple sputter cycles followed by data acquisition.

17.3 The sample handling automation must include the ability to position the sample stage for sample transfer from or to the introduction lock, to automatically optimize the Z position of the sample based on photoelectron signal, and to perform compucentric azimuthal sample rotation for Zalar ion etch.

17.4 To achieve high throughput automated analysis, robust auto-Z sample alignment with turnkey dual electron/ion charge neutralization is required (without the need for special sample mounting or masking) so that a measurement sequence can proceed without concern from insulator to conductor to insulator.

17.5 The control software must include the ability for troubleshooting and calibration of the instrument parameters, such as testing and altering the instrument transmission function, testing and calibration of the binding energy scale, optimizing ion source characteristics, and optimizing the charge neutralization settings.

18.0 Accessories

18.1 All required water chillers to allow for normal operation at site of installation must be supplied with the XPS suite.

18.2 Uninterruptable power supply (UPS) battery backup is required for multi-analysis electronic components and associated control system to overcome short term (up to 10 minute) utility power fluctuations or outages.

18.3 All required power line transformers to allow normal operation at site of installation must be supplied with the XPS suite. 3ph 208VAC power is available.

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19.0 XPS Suite Spare Parts

19.1 In order to maximize the instrument availability after the installation, a set of recommended consumable parts for a minimum of one year operation must be supplied.

20.0 XPS Suite Installation

20.1 The vendor must provide on-site installation of the XPS Suite in Building 207, Chemistry Division, Naval Research Laboratory 4555 Overlook Ave. SW, Washington. DC 20375.

20.2 The vendor must specify the lead time for delivery and installation of the XPS suite at the Naval Research Laboratory.

20.3 A factory-trained technician must perform initial setup, testing, and calibration of the XPS suite, control electronics, and software.

20.4 The installed system must meet the requirements and performance specifications as stated in sections 2.0 through 19.0 of this document and in the vendor's proposal.

20.5 The operation and maintenance of the XPS Suite as well as the use of control and analysis software will be demonstrated over a period of several days to a dozen users by qualified vendor personnel.

20.6 The vendor must provide all documentation, drawings, and schematics that are necessary for the full operation, troubleshooting, servicing, and repair of the system and its components.

21.0 Low Cost of Ownership

21.1 Systems that minimize or eliminate the need for expensive tools and consumables are preferred. Vendors are encouraged to provide evidence supporting low cost of ownership.

22.0 Warranty

22.1 A base manufacturer's warranty for at least one (I) year from first use must be provided for the XPS suite and its components. The warranty must include technical support, a minimum of four (4) on-demand service calls per year (with response within 72 hours), and a minimum of one (1) planned preventive maintenance visit per year. Extending the warranty to three (3) years should be quoted as an option, see 23.0 “Optional Items” below.

22.2 All XPS Suite control hardware (including operator interface computer) and software must be covered by the warranty plan and must include all software updates, if any, during the warranty period.

23.0 Optional Items

23.1 Extended manufacturer's warranty for three (3) years from first use.