Final_South Sudan RASS IEE_010521 (1).pdf

USAID SOUTH SUDAN

IEE – ECONOMIC GROWTH/AGRIC

INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL

EXAMINATION

ACTIVITY DATA

Activity Name: Resilience through Agriculture in South Sudan

(RASS)

Geographic Location(s) (Country/Region): South Sudan Amendment (Yes/No), if Yes indicate # (1, 2...): No Implementation Start/End Date (FY or M/D/Y): June 1, 2021 – October 1, 2025 If Amended, specify New End Date:

Solicitation/Contract/Award Number: TBD Implementing Partner(s): TBD Bureau Tracking ID: South Sudan RASS IEE Tracking ID of Related RCE/IEE (if any): None Tracking ID of Other, Related Analyses: None

ORGANIZATIONAL/ADMINISTRATIVE DATA

Implementing Operating Unit(s):

(e.g. Mission or Bureau or Office)

South Sudan

Other Affected Operating Unit(s): None Lead BEO Bureau: AFR Funding Account(s) (if available):

Original Funding Amount: $24.5 Million If Amended, specify funding amount:

If Amended, specify new funding total:

Prepared by: Lokosang Lemi, USAID/South Sudan; Stella

Siegel, Josh Habib, ECOS (Cadmus/ICF) Date Prepared: November 2020

ENVIRONMENTAL COMPLIANCE REVIEW DATA

Analysis Type: X Environmental

Examination X Deferral

Environmental Determination(s): X Categorical Exclusion(s) X Negative

Positive - None X Deferred (per 22CFR216.3(a)(7)(iv)

IEE Expiration Date (if different from implementation end date):

October 1, 2025

Additional Analyses/Reporting Required:

Climate Risks Identified (#): Low 6 Moderate 8 High ___0___ Climate Risks Addressed (#): Low __6___ Moderate ___8___ High __0____

IEE – ECONOMIC GROWTH/AGRIC

THRESHOLD DETERMINATION AND SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

ACTIVITY SUMMARY

USAID intends for the Resilience through Agriculture in South Sudan (RASS) to lead to a significant improvement in community and household recovery and resilience and food security in Unity, Upper Nile, Jonglei, Western Bahr El Ghazal, and Eastern Equatoria States of South Sudan through the following components:

1. Strengthened local systems and community group capacities to sustain gender-responsive, diversified and market-sensitive agriculture production;

2. Increased availability of, access to, and utilization of diverse, safe, and affordable diet;

and

3. Capacity building to strengthen groups participating in diversified, sustainable, locally driven livelihoods.

ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINATIONS

Table 1 summarizes the environmental determinations applicable to the specific Activities. Upon approval of this document, the determinations become affirmed, per Agency regulations

(22CFR216).

TABLE 1: ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINATIONS

Activities Categorical Exclusion Citation (if applicable)

Negative Determination

Positive Determination

Deferral1

Activity 1: Improving sustainable livelihoods: Agricultural production

Sub-activity 1.1: Crop production (subsistence crops, vegetable gardens, cash crops, fodder, pasture); agricultural inputs (fertilizer, seeds, plant materials, pesticides)

Sub-activity 1.2: Agroforestry agricultural inputs (plant materials, pesticides) (excludes timber harvesting)

Sub-activity 1.3: Livestock production, use of veterinary products, veterinary pesticides

Sub-activity 1.4: Apiculture (honey hunting, bee maintenance, bee keeping)

1 Deferrals must be cleared through an Amendment to this IEE prior to implementation of any deferred activities.

USAID/IPs may utilize the Environmental Screening Tool to assess impacts of deferred activities.

IEE – ECONOMIC GROWTH/AGRIC

Sub-activity 1.5: Capture fishing and aquaculture √ Sub-activity 1.6: Agriculture logistics and supply chains (e.g., river transport, warehousing, consolidation, retail)

Sub-activity 1.7: Value added agricultural processing √ Activity 2: Improving nutrition practices

Sub-activity 2.1: Community outreach, mobilization and organization, workshops, presentations/meetings, demonstrations, knowledge, and information transfer, social and behavior change communications

Activity 3: Improving livelihoods: small scale construction, manufacturing, and energy efficiency

Sub-activity 3.1: Non-agriculture value added activities, small scale industry/manufacturing

Sub-activity 3.2: Small scale construction or repair of market stalls, animal shelter, holding pens, fences, buildings, bridges, storage facilities, market roads, earth works or similar activities

Sub-activity 3.3: Energy efficiency activities, e.g., introduction of solar panels and energy efficient stoves

Sub-activity 3.4: Water management activities including small scale irrigation

Activity 4: Community organization and association strengthening

Sub-activity 4.1: Community outreach and mobilization √ Sub-activity 4.2: Strengthening community organizations, budgeting, governing, negotiations, workshops, presentations/meetings, knowledge, and information transfer

IEE – ECONOMIC GROWTH/AGRIC

Activity 5: Capacity building, training, knowledge transfer

Sub-activity 5.1: Capacity building, organizing, and delivering training, developing training content and materials

CLIMATE RISK MANAGEMENT

The climate risk management (CRM) assessment for the relevant activities is documented in Section 4.2 of this IEE. The analysis is based on the USAID Climate Risk Screening and Management Tool for Project Design (U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit:

https://toolkit.climate.gov/).

IMPLEMENTATION

In accordance with 22 CFR 216 and Agency policy, the conditions and requirements of this document become mandatory upon approval. This includes the relevant limitations, conditions, and requirements in this document as stated in Sections 3, 4, and 5 of the IEE and any BEO Specified Conditions of Approval.

BEO SPECIFIED CONDITIONS OF APPROVAL

1. Reporting Conditions: As is standard throughout the region, the AFR BEO requests that the activity managers/AORs/CORs provide access to the Regional Environmental Advisor (REA) and to the AFR BEO Team to review (not approve) the Environmental Mitigation and Monitoring Plans/Reports (EMMPs/EMMRs) that will be written to implement the findings of this IEE. These should be uploaded into the appropriate sub-folder(s) of this Google Drive folder:

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1q7HGMzgopJ-MuKxkQEJ4GSPp9R7Qzv- 5?usp=sharing. This will facilitate access by all parties who need these documents, including the Mission Environmental Officer and the AOR/COR. This will allow the REA and the BEO Team to spot-check and review these documents to confirm that the mitigations seem appropriate and are cognizant of the specific design of the activities.

New activities and those revised to incorporate a change in scope or nature will require an IEE amendment to identify and address potential environmental impacts. This condition is mentioned again in Section 7 of this IEE.

2. The AFR BEO requests that if USAID is responsible for disposing of any electronic waste (e-waste) in support of administrative actions of its activities (per impacts of sub-activity 2.1), it must be disposed of in a manner in accordance with host country regulations.

IEE – ECONOMIC GROWTH/AGRIC

USAID APPROVAL OF INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXAMINATION

ACTIVITY NAME: Building Community Resilience through Agriculture Bureau Tracking ID:

Approval: Cleared 12/28/2020

Jeremiah Carew, A/Mission Director Date

Clearance: Cleared via email 11/25/2020

Lokosang Lemi, Activity Manager Date

Clearance: Cleared through email 11/25/2020

Takele Tassew, Economic Growth Director Date

Clearance: Cleared via email 12/02/2020

Diana Daibes, Program Office Director Date

Clearance: Cleared through email 11/25/2020

Richard Nyarsuk, Mission Environmental Officer Date

Clearance: Cleared via email 12/01/2020

Rick Burns, Regional Legal Officer Date

Clearance: Cleared electronically 12/17/2020

Katelin Maher, A/Deputy Mission Director, South Sudan Date

Clearance: Cleared electronically 12/22/2020

David Kinyua, EA Regional Environmental Advisor Date

Clearance: Cleared via email 12/14/2020

Colin Quinn, AFR Regional Climate Integration Lead Date

Concurrence: 01/05/2021

Brian Hirsch, Bureau Environmental Officer Date

DISTRIBUTION:

i

INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL

EXAMINATION

CONTENTS

1.0 ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION 1

1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF IEE 1

1.2 ACTIVITY OVERVIEW 1

1.3 ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION 2

2.0 BASELINE ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION 5

2.1 LOCATIONS AFFECTED AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT (ENVIRONMENT,

PHYSICAL, CLIMATE, SOCIAL) 5

2.2 APPLICABLE AND APPROPRIATE PARTNER COUNTRY AND OTHER

INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS (E.G. WHO), ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL LAWS,

POLICIES, AND REGULATIONS 10

2.3 COUNTRY/MINISTRY/MUNICIPALITY ENVIRONMENTAL CAPACITY ANALYSIS 11

3.0 ANALYSIS OF POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RISK 14

4.0 ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINATIONS 24

4.1 RECOMMENDED ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINATIONS 24

4.2 CLIMATE RISK MANAGEMENT 27

5.0 CONDITIONS AND MITIGATION MEASURES 0

5.1 CONDITIONS 0

5.2 AGENCY CONDITIONS 1

5.3 MITIGATION MEASURES 2

6.0 LIMITATIONS OF THIS INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXAMINATION 10

7.0 REVISIONS 10

1.0 ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION

1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF IEE

Purpose. The purpose of this document, in accordance with Title 22, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 216 (22 CFR 216), is to provide a preliminary review of the reasonably foreseeable effects on the environment of the USAID intervention described herein and recommend determinations and, as appropriate, conditions, for these activities. Upon approval, these determinations become affirmed, per 22 CFR 216 and specified conditions become mandatory obligations of implementation. This IEE also documents the results of the Activity level Climate Risk Management process in accordance with USAID policy (specifically, ADS 201mal).

This IEE is a critical element of USAID’s mandatory environmental review and compliance process meant to achieve environmentally sound activity design and implementation. Potential environmental impacts should be addressed through formal environmental mitigation and monitoring plans (EMMPs) and/or Environmental Assessments (EAs), if needed.

Scope. This IEE covers all USAID/South Sudan Resilience through Agriculture in South Sudan (RASS) activities.

1.2 ACTIVITY OVERVIEW

South Sudan has significant, but largely unrealized, agricultural potential. Favorable soil, water, and climatic conditions render more than 70 percent2 of its total land area suitable for production of crops including cereals, fruits, vegetables, legumes, root crops (potatoes, yam, cassava), and cash crops such as coffee, sugar, gum arabic, and oil palm. Livestock keeping in South Sudan plays an important cultural and economic role in society and the country’s wealth of waterways offers great potential for fish farming.

However, South Sudan remains one of the most food-insecure countries in the world. It has been unstable since its independence from Sudan in 2011. Ongoing regional conflict drives much of the food insecurity, and greatly affects the high rates of malnutrition and mortality. In addition, limited use of productivity-enhancing technologies, capacity constraints, non-tariff barriers, high labor costs, and poor infrastructure hinder progress and constrain the productivity and competitiveness of South Sudan’s agricultural industry.3

The RASS activity aims to increase the resilience of South Sudan’s agricultural sector and its ability to withstand multiple crises and threats, including conflict, economic decline, natural disasters, plant pests, and human and animal diseases.

2 https://reliefweb.int/report/south-sudan-republic/agricultural-potential-rural-roads-and-farm-competitiveness-south-sudan 3 Ibid

1.3 ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION

RASS aims to significantly improve community and household resilience and food security in Unity, Upper Nile, Jonglei, Western Bahr El Ghazal, and Eastern Equatoria States of South Sudan through the following three components:

1. The “Strengthened local systems and community groups to sustain diversified and market-sensitive food (crop, livestock, and fisheries) production” component will focus on improved food production. This is necessary for improved nutrition of the targeted food-insecure communities through provision of inputs and training to enhance productivity. Illustrative activities under this component may include:

o Increase access to better, climate-sensitive seed; support to seed fairs, farmer-to-farmer networks;

o Improve access to water for irrigation;

o Support for solar powered systems;

o Access to inputs, including tools, machinery, animal-driven tools, pesticides (South

Sudan PERSUAP: https://ecd.usaid.gov/document.php?doc_id=39495) and fertilizer;

o Improve quality of extension services and training for farmer groups;

o Expand post-harvest services, including transportation, storage, processing, and drying;

and o Increase livestock and fish production.

2. The “Increased access to and availability (and utilization) of diverse, safe, and affordable diets” component will address malnutrition using a multi-sectoral food systems approach.

This approach ensures adequate intake of diverse diets and supports communities and households to increase the cultivation and utilization of safe, nutritious foods. Illustrative activities under this component may include:

o Increase planting of vegetables and fruits;

o Promote household gardens and small livestock keeping; and o Improve nutrition messaging through radio, schools, and farmer group trainings.

3. The “capacity building to strengthen groups participating in diversified, sustainable and locally-driven livelihoods” component will focus on providing economic opportunities, particularly to women, youth, and other vulnerable groups. Where appropriate, activities will support local value chain actors, as well as build technical, business, and networking skills so that a nascent private sector can gain momentum in targeted areas. Illustrative activities under this component may include:

o Bee keeping, honey manufacturing, and honey marketing;

o Agroforestry development, including fruit drying and processing, wood for construction, and charcoal production;

o Fishery development, including aquaculture, capture fisheries, boat construction, net weaving, fish smoking, and ice production;

o Cultivation of high value crops including gum arabic, coffee, tea, and sesame, and linking these crops to buyers and aggregators; and o Production of appropriate technology such as fuel-efficient stoves and locally produced tools.

TABLE 2: DEFINED OR ILLUSTRATIVE ACTIVITIES AND SUB-ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Improving sustainable livelihoods - Agricultural production

Sub-activity 1.1: Crop production at small and commercial farms (subsistence crops, vegetable gardens, cash crops, fodder, pasture); agricultural inputs (fertilizer, seeds, plant materials, pesticides)

Sub-activity 1.2: Agroforestry agricultural inputs (plant materials, pesticides) (excludes timber harvesting)

Sub-activity 1.3: Livestock production, use of veterinary products, veterinary pesticides

Sub-activity 1.4: Apiculture (honey hunting, bee maintenance, bee keeping)

Sub-activity 1.5: Capture fishing and aquaculture

Sub-activity 1.6: Agriculture logistics and supply chains (e.g. transport, warehousing, consolidation, retail)

Sub-activity 1.7: Value added agricultural processing

Activity 2: Improving nutrition practices

Sub-activity 2.1: Community outreach, mobilization and organization, workshops, presentations/ meetings, demonstrations, knowledge, and information transfer, social and behavior change communications

Activity 3: Improving livelihoods: small scale construction, manufacturing, and energy efficiency

Sub-activity 3.1: Non-agriculture value added activities, small scale industry/manufacturing

Sub-activity 3.2: Small scale construction or repair of market stalls, animal shelter, holding pens, fences, buildings, bridges, storage facilities, market roads, earth works or similar activities

Sub-activity 3.3: Energy efficiency activities, e.g., introduction of solar panels and energy efficient stoves

Sub-activity 3.4: Water management activities including small scale irrigation

Activity 4: Community organization and association strengthening

Sub-activity 4.1: Community outreach and mobilization

Sub-activity 4.2: Strengthening community organizations, budgeting, developing governing, negotiations, workshops, presentations/meetings, knowledge, and information transfer

Activity 5: Capacity building, training, knowledge transfer

Sub-activity 5.1: Capacity building, organizing, and delivering training, developing training content and materials

Will this Activity involve construction4 as defined by ADS 201 and 303? Yes ☒ No ☐

If yes, describe in the space below:

Small scale construction activities could include:

• Animal shelters

• Apiary Construction

• Bridge Repair

• Building Repair

• Earthworks

• Fences

• Fishponds

• Holding Ponds

• Market Roads

• Market Sheds and Stalls

• Structures for milk value addition centers “Milk Bars”

• Small-Scale Irrigation Canal Development

• Solar Panel Installation

• Slaughter Slabs

• Storage Facilities

• Trenches and Ponds

As construction activities are added or further defined under this activity, the IEE will be amended (small scale construction activities are currently Deferred).

4 Construction, as defined by ADS 201 and 303, includes: construction, alteration, or repair (including dredging and excavation) of buildings, structures, or other real property and includes, without limitation, improvements, renovation, alteration and refurbishment. The term includes, without limitation, roads, power plants, buildings, bridges, water treatment facilities, and vertical structures. In the box below, describe any construction planned for this Activity. Refer to ADS 201maw for required Construction Risk Management procedures.

2.0 BASELINE ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION

2.1 LOCATIONS AFFECTED AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT (ENVIRONMENT, PHYSICAL,

CLIMATE, SOCIAL)

TOPOGRAPHY AND ECOLOGICAL ZONES

South Sudan is a landlocked country that covers an area of 640,000 square kilometers. Its landscape includes stretches of tropical and equatorial forests, wetlands, savannah, and mountains but is predominated by expansive flood plains (and the Sudd wetlands) that are linked to the Nile River. Terrain generally and gradually rises from plains in the north and center to southern highlands along the border with Uganda and Kenya. Vegetation in the South is characterized by Sudanian woodlands, with lowland forest patches along the border with Kenya, Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and Central African Republic. The Imatong Mountains in the extreme south sustain mountain forests. The forest resources of South Sudan cover approximately one third of the total area of the country.

WATER RESOURCES

The main feature of the country is the White Nile river originating in mountains up to 3,000 meters above sea level in the Imatong Hills and flowing down gradual slopes to clay plains. The Sudd wetland is the inland delta of the White Nile and one of the largest swamps worldwide. It consists of lakes, marshes, and extensive floodplains, some parts of which are infested by insects which are hazardous to humans and livestock.

The Nile River, shared among 11 countries, is the primary source of South Sudan’s water (in addition to its internal renewable water resources). The Nile River hydrological basin covers most of the country. Water is held in perennial rivers and wetland areas; in seasonal pools, ponds, rivers, torrents, streams, and extensive floodplains (the latter known locally as toich);

and in cataracts, waterfalls, and rapids upstream from the rivers. However, more than half of the Nile’s water evaporates before reaching the border with Sudan. Nile system rivers Sobat and Bahr El Ghazal are seasonal rivers.

The major groundwater formation is the Sudd basin, also called the Umm Rwaba basin. The Umm Rwaba basin’s volume and relationship to the overlying surface water (particularly the swamps) is currently unknown.5

South Sudan’s substantial water resources are unevenly distributed both spatially and temporally. Water quantities vary substantially between years depending on periodic major flood and drought events. Water demand is still low given the country’s relatively small population, low population density, and lack of industrial development, but demand is expected to increase rapidly in the future with projected population growth and economic development. There are reduced river flows, increased surface and ground water contamination, and declining water tables in urban areas.6

5 http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/SSD/ 6 https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/25530/SouthSudan_SoE_Summary.pdf?sequence= 1&isAllowed=y

CLIMATE

South Sudan’s climate is predominantly sub-humid. Rainfall is favorable in the southwest, with Western Equatoria and highland parts of Eastern Equatoria receiving 1,200 to 2,200 mm of rainfall annually. The lowland areas of Eastern Equatoria, Jonglei, Upper Nile, and Bahr el Ghazal receive between 700 and 1,300 mm of rainfall annually. The southeastern tip of Eastern Equatoria receives the least amount of annual rainfall, totaling only about 200 mm.

Temperatures in South Sudan are typically above 25°C and can rise above 35°C, particularly during the dry season, which lasts from January to April. The hot, dry conditions trigger seasonal human and livestock migration to more permanent water sources, which serve as dry season grazing pasture. For some ethnic groups, such as the Dinka, they also serve as fishing grounds.

BIODIVERSITY

South Sudan has a wide range of habitats that support diverse animals and plant species.

South Sudan has an extensive system of game reserves and national parks. The total protected area estate covers about 87,030 km2 of the country, which is about 13% of the land surface.

National parks are estimated to cover an area of 51,760 km2, game reserves 34,110 km2, and forest reserves 1,160 km2. In addition to this protected area estate, South Sudan also contains one Ramsar site, the Sudd, which is recognized under the Ramsar Convention as a Wetland of International Importance.

There are key direct and indirect threats to biodiversity in South Sudan.

The direct threats include: 7

● Wildlife poaching and trafficking are serious problems largely attributed to the demand for products from wild animals for bush meat, cash, and game trophies.

● Deforestation due to growth in charcoal production results in the loss of woodlands.

Illegal logging of hardwoods is also a significant direct threat.

● Destruction of ecosystems and biodiversity due to livestock and agricultural expansion.

● Habitat fragmentation caused by road network construction and the expansion of extractive industries (such as minerals mining and oil).

● Adverse climate change impacts including increasing desertification and the delaying and shortening of rainy seasons.

● Human-wildlife conflicts especially with communities living near protected areas.

The indirect threats include:

● Past and continuing armed conflicts, the resulting internally displaced person (IDP) crisis, and the proliferation of firearms, which facilitate crimes against wildlife.

● Inadequate and ineffective legal, institutional, and administration capacities for biodiversity management and limited government budgetary allocation.

● Inadequate coordination among institutions and other stakeholders involved in

7 https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ss/ss-nr-05-en.pdf biodiversity management, laws, policies, and programs.

● Inadequate decentralization and devolution of biodiversity management.

● Insufficient data on South Sudan biodiversity.

● Negative impacts of development and increasing population growth.

● Inadequate public awareness on the importance of environmental protection and environmental policies and laws.

● Replacement of local crop varieties with introduced commercial varieties, leading to neglect of traditional crops.

● The spread of invasive species and genetically modified organisms (GMOs).

DEMOGRAPHICS

South Sudan’s population is estimated at 11,193,725 with 4.7 live births per woman and average life expectancy of about 60 years. The median age is 19 years old.8

South Sudan became independent from Sudan in July 2011 after decades of civil war and is one of the world’s poorest countries, ranking among the lowest in many socioeconomic categories. Problems are exacerbated by ongoing tensions with Sudan over oil revenues and land borders, fighting between government forces and rebel groups, and inter-communal violence. More than 80% of the populace lives in rural areas relying on farming and animal husbandry.

South Sudan suffers a shortage of healthcare workers, facilities, and supplies; poor roads and a lack of transport; and poor educational attainment due to the lack of schools, qualified teachers, and materials. Less than a third of the population is literate (the rate is even lower among women), and half of the population lives below the poverty line. Teachers and students are also struggling with the switch in the language of instruction from Arabic to English. Moreover, many adults missed out on schooling because of warfare and displacement.

Almost two million South Sudanese have sought refuge in neighboring countries since the current conflict began in December 2013. Another 1.96 million South Sudanese are internally displaced as of August 2017. Despite South Sudan’s instability and lack of infrastructure and social services, more than 240,000 people have fled to South Sudan to escape fighting in Sudan.9

8 https://www.worldometers.info/demographics/south-sudan-demographics/#median-age 9 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/print_od.html

Spatial Patterns of Agricultural Potential10 and Population Density

Source: https://www.afdb.org/

ECONOMIC INFORMATION

Although endowed with rich natural resources, South Sudan remains comparatively underdeveloped as a result of recurring conflicts. South Sudan’s economy is characterized by a strong dependence on oil resources and revenues, and by a substantial reliance on imports.

Agropastoralism. In South Sudan agropastoralism is the main livelihood system in rural areas.

Although agropastoralism involves both livestock rearing and crop production, a household’s financial capital is typically held in the form of livestock. Livestock also supply milk and other foods and are sold to purchase cereals for food and to meet other domestic needs. Poorer households seek to build their herds to build their financial capital. Due to the seasonality of food production, milk is a critical staple, particularly when other foods, e.g. cereals, are not readily available. Milk is an especially important food for young children as well as pregnant and lactating mothers. Livestock is also important in South Sudan’s pastoralist and agrarian areas.

The current movement of livestock into different states and the concentration and intermingling

10 Agricultural potential is represented by the Length of Growing Period (LGP) of large numbers of livestock in confined areas is having devastating effects on animal health.11

Crop production. It is estimated that more than 70 percent of the nation’s total land area is suitable for crop production but less than four percent of the total land area is cultivated. Soil and climate conditions allow for a wide variety of food and cash crops. Agricultural production is, for the most part, based on small, hand-cultivated units, often farmed by women-led households.

Smallholder farming systems in South Sudan encompass a wide range of sorghum landraces, with minor crops of maize (often grown close to homesteads for green consumption), bulrush millet, finger millet, and upland rice depending on the location. Cassava is also widely grown, especially in the center and south but also in the northwest, depending on access to planting material.

In the north of South Sudan, a region with sandy soil, groundnuts are an important part of the household diet and serve as a cash crop that contributes to household income. Pulses such as cowpea or green grams (mung beans), oil seed such as sesame, and tobacco are also widely grown. There is an increasing demand for vegetables, especially in the urban centers and towns, which has triggered increased production by small scale farmers. The primary vegetables that farmers are growing include tomatoes, cabbage, kale, eggplant, onions, and okra.

Inputs to production. Most farmers use seed retained from their previous year’s harvest, or seed from the market or gifts from relatives or friends. The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), Government of South Sudan (GoSS), and some NGOs provide some seed, principally to returnees and to farmers classified as vulnerable. However, quantities are extremely small compared to the amount required by the farming community, and many farmers complain of seed shortages. The seed system operated by GoSS has been inactive over the years, so the amount of certified seed available to farmers has been negligible. In recent years there have been indications that the farmers are increasing use of improved seeds (or Genetically Modified Organisms) as well as broadening the range of crops grown.

Organic fertilizers are rarely used; inorganic fertilizers are available on a very limited scale because most farmers prefer to use farmyard manure for their small plots of vegetables.

Small amounts of pesticides are used, particularly on vegetables.

Agriculture is mostly rainfed in South Sudan and farmers have little experience with irrigation. The South Sudan research, extension, and advisory system has limited capacity to support widespread irrigated agriculture. Despite the presence of many rivers and streams and probably underground water reservoirs, there have never been serious efforts to develop irrigation and flood management systems in South Sudan.

Following the loss of large numbers of draught animals during the civil war, international programs continue to make efforts to reintroduce animal traction by oxen on a small-scale;

however, farmers tend to sell their oxen for slaughter after two or three years of work. Tractors (often for rent) are becoming more common and affordable.

11http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/emergencies/docs/FAO%20South%20Sudan%20Livestock%20Strategy %20Paper%2030%20March%202015.pdf

Farm labor, when available, is unaffordable and the laborers often lack appropriate skills and the incentive to work. Women are responsible for a lot of the agricultural work, but the customary land tenure system limits women’s rights to access land and property; they also have limited control or use of information on water resources.12

Fishing and aquaculture. Fishing in South Sudan is generally a subsistence or artisanal activity; the commercial fishery industry is almost non-existent.

2.2 APPLICABLE AND APPROPRIATE PARTNER COUNTRY AND OTHER INTERNATIONAL

STANDARDS (E.G. WHO), ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL LAWS, POLICIES, AND REGULATIONS

Constitution. Since attainment of independence in July 2011, the Government of the Republic of South Sudan has adopted a new constitution and several new policies and legislation, with the aim of enhancing sustainable socio-economic development in the country. The policies and laws provide procedures to plan and implement government activities, to utilize resources, and to execute government programs to the maximum benefit.

The Transitional Constitution of the Republic of South Sudan of 2011 incorporates numerous provisions that have a bearing on the environment. Article 41 (1) provides that the people of South Sudan shall have a right to a clean and healthy environment, (2) every person shall have the obligation to protect the environment for the benefit of present and future generations, and

(3) every person shall have the right to have the environment protected for the benefit of present and future generations, through reasonable legislative action and other measures that:

a) prevent pollution and ecological degradation;

b) promote conservation; and

c) secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while promoting rational economic and social development to protect the biodiversity of South Sudan.

Furthermore, Article 166 (6) expects local governments to involve communities in decision making in the promotion of a safe and healthy environment.

Government policies, strategies and plans addressing agriculture and food security and prioritizing climate change and resiliency have been updated or developed, including:

o National Development Strategy 2018: Aims to consolidate peace and stabilize the economy.13 o Agriculture Sector Policy Framework (ASPF): 2012-2017: Aims to increase agricultural productivity on a sustainable basis by addressing key constraints in food production, marketing, distribution, and value-addition.

o National Adaptation Plan of Action (NAPA) 2016: Lists priorities and guiding principles for adaptation projects to address the urgent and immediate climate change concerns in South Sudan.

o Policy on Food Security 2012: Supports policy measures and strategies to mitigate the adverse effects and impacts of climate change in the medium- and long-term. These policies and strategies also seek to increase the adaptive capacities of communities to

12 http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/Profile_segments/SSD-IrrDr_eng.stm 13 https://www.cabri-sbo.org/en/documents/republic-of-south-sudan-national-development-strategy manage the impacts of climate change. Measures include the development of crops that can resist droughts and floods.

o Forest Policy 2014: Recognizes the critical role played by forests in providing “critical environmental services, water catchment and in mitigating climate change.” The forestry policy proposes the ratification of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) so that the country can benefit from the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). It also proposes establishing a designated national authority “to facilitate the flow of climate change benefits to South Sudan.” The policy also emphasizes the need for measures “so that South Sudan can access financing under REDD,” which is an initiative that focuses on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. It calls for delineation and gazettement of forests to attain a national forest cover of 20 percent of South Sudan’s land area.

o Proposed land policy: Addresses issues such as displacements due to civil wars, natural disasters, land right conflicts, and conflicts over pastures and water points.

o Proposed policy on seeds: Supports the improvement of agricultural productivity, household income generation and food security through adequate, timely, and sustainable supplies of well-adapted high-quality seed at competitive prices.14

2.3 COUNTRY/MINISTRY/MUNICIPALITY ENVIRONMENTAL CAPACITY ANALYSIS

South Sudan does not yet have a national environmental law despite being a party to the Paris climate agreement. However, some policies, strategies, and plans have been put in place to guide agriculture and fisheries development in the country and ensure their sustainability. The success of these policies, strategies and plans have been stalled or hampered by the ongoing conflict.

TABLE 3: KEY INSTITUTIONS RESPONSIBLE FOR CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION IN SOUTH

SUDAN15

Institution Roles and responsibilities

Institution Roles and responsibilities

Ministry of Environment and Forestry

Tasked with developing policy and regulatory frameworks on environment and forestry. The Directorate of Climate Change and Meteorology in the Ministry develops and implements programs to address climate change issues and coordinates the implementation of South Sudan’s obligations under the UNFCCC and the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD).

Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism

Manages protected areas (national parks and game reserves) and protects, conserves, and manages wildlife resources in South Sudan through the Wildlife Service.

14 https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/25528/SouthSudan_SoE2018.pdf?sequence= 1&isAllowed=y

15 https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/25528/SouthSudan_SoE2018.pdf?sequence=1&is Allowed=y

Institution Roles and responsibilities

Institution Roles and responsibilities

Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security

Its mandate is to develop and implement policies, objectives, and strategies to develop South Sudan’s agricultural sector to improve food security and contribute to economic growth and environmental sustainability, and to facilitate and encourage the equitable and sustainable development of improved livelihoods. It exercises its role through the Directorate of Research and Training and the Directorate of Agriculture and Extension services.

Agricultural research institutes

The key institutes established under the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security are the Yei Agricultural Research Centre (YARC); Parataka Agricultural Research Centre (PARC); and Halina Agricultural Research Centre. They are involved in testing varieties of seeds, including seeds that can resist droughts.

Ministry of Finance and Planning

Allocates financial resources to government ministries and agencies, enabling them to respond to disasters such as floods and drought. The Ministry of Finance and Planning has an important role in climate change adaptation.

Ministry for Energy and Dams

Plans and provides power generation, transmission, and distribution facilities to industrial and domestic consumers through the South Sudan Electricity Corporation (SSEC), the implementing body of the Ministry.

The SSEC’s mandate is to execute the Ministry’s policies, strategies, and plans for the availability, accessibility, and affordability of electricity.

Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation

Responsible for managing water resources and developing water policies, strategies, and plans, such as the Irrigation Development Master Plan and the Water Resources Utilisation and Development Master Plan.

Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries

Responsible for livestock and fishery policy development. The Directorate of Veterinary Services is responsible for preparing and enforcing laws governing livestock disease control and eradication and the safety of food of animal origin. This includes safeguarding public health by tracking animal diseases transmissible to humans.

Universities and other training institutions

Offer degree and certificate courses in agriculture, natural resource management, forestry, and fisheries, among other disciplines.

Universities include Dr. John Gerang University of Science and Technology and the Upper Nile University. Diploma and certificate training institutions include the Padak Fisheries Training Centre and the Kagelu Forestry Training Centre. The fishery centre focuses on developing fishery resources through training and research, while the forestry centre is involved in providing practical skills to manage forests in a sustainable manner.

Ministry of Humanitarian and Disaster Management

(MHDM)

Responsible for policy decision-making on disaster risk reduction at the national level. Its mandate is to oversee all humanitarian work in South Sudan. It is composed of the Directorate of Administration and Finance;

the Directorate of Planning, Coordination, Monitoring and Evaluation; and the Directorate of Disaster and Management.

South Sudan Relief and Rehabilitation Commission

(SSRRC)

This is the operational arm of the MHDM. The SSRRC is responsible for implementing policies developed by the Ministry under the Directorate of Disaster Management at the national level, and through SSRRC’s representatives at the state and county level. It is involved in establishing an early warning system at national and state levels.

Institution Roles and responsibilities

Institution Roles and responsibilities

Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation

The political focal point for international environmental conventions and treaties. The Ministry is the link between international efforts on climate change and the Government of the Republic of South Sudan.

South Sudan Directorate of Meteorological Service

(SSMS)

The SSMS has re-established climate stations to deliver information on actual weather, forecast weather, seasonal outlook, and climate.

South Sudan Seed Council

This council has been proposed to coordinate the implementation of the seed policy.

South Sudan Food Security Council

This council has been proposed to implement, monitor, and evaluate the implementation of the food security policy.

South Sudan Forestry Commission

This council has been proposed to administer, regulate, and supervise forestry activities in South Sudan.

Community based organizations (CBOs)

Under the National Environment Policy, CBOs are expected to play a pivotal role to advocate for the sustainable management of biodiversity.

They are responsible for mobilizing and sensitizing local communities and ensuring that the concerns of the underprivileged are integrated into the national development plans.

3.0 ANALYSIS OF POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RISK16

Tables in this section summarize potential environmental and social impacts of Activities.

TABLE 4. POTENTIAL IMPACTS

Activity Potential environmental and social impacts

Activity 1: Improving sustainable livelihoods - Agricultural production

Sub-activity 1.1: Crop production (subsistence crops, vegetable gardens, cash crops, fodder, pasture); agricultural inputs (fertilizer, seeds, plant materials, pesticides)

Potential specific impacts of agricultural production will vary with crops chosen, agro-ecological zone, cultivation practices used, inputs used, and other key parameters of the agricultural system.

Water depletion and pollution: Water quality and quantity concerns include runoff and leaching of nutrients and pesticides, water over-extraction, saline intrusion, drainage, and flooding.

Contamination of both ground and surface waters caused by use of manure and chemical fertilizers, particularly in areas of intensive specialized crop production, can threaten water quality.

Adverse impacts of irrigation may include over-extraction of water, placing stresses on soil structure, increased leaching, and runoff of agricultural pollutants into ground and surface waters. In some cases, this contributes to breeding disease vectors.

Air pollution: Air quality concerns include emissions of ammonia and greenhouse gases (GHGs) including from use of fertilizers and machinery.

Loss of ecosystem services: Conversion of land to agricultural use can lead to the loss of important landscape features such as forests and grasslands, and in turn, the loss of ecosystem services.

Loss of biodiversity, introduction of non-native species, and landscape fragmentation: Land clearing and the expansion of agriculture can lead to widespread reduction of species and habitats, isolation of species, and loss of genetic and ecosystem diversity. The introduction of non-native species can lead to loss of native species and cause environmental harm due to changes in the ecosystem’s composition and processes.

Soil degradation and pollution: Adverse impacts of crop production on soil may include erosion from land clearing, contamination from use of chemicals, and loss of soil fertility from poor agricultural practices.

16 Includes analysis of environmental and social

Activity Potential environmental and social impacts

Occupational hazards: Farmworkers can be exposed to numerous health, safety, environmental, biological, and respiratory hazards. These include hazards related to use of chemicals.

Food safety risks: In addition to impacts of crop production on the physical environment, agricultural crop production practices can impact human health and animal well-being. Crop production practices relate to the quality and safety of the food supply, including consideration of naturally occurring toxins and pesticides residues.

Impacts related to use of fertilizers: Overuse of fertilizers can cause pollution when nutrients run off the land into surface waters during heavy rainfall events, or leach through the soil beyond the root zone and eventually reach the groundwater.

Volatile components can escape into the atmosphere and contribute to air pollution. Excess amounts of phosphorus are associated with algal blooms and the eutrophication of lakes and waterways. Nitrogen fertilizers can also accelerate the natural process of soil acidification. Heavy treatments of chemical fertilizers can kill soil organisms, which may lead to a reduction in nutrient retention. Using too much fertilizer can cause plant burn. Inhaling, ingesting, or dermal contact with fertilizers can cause adverse human health effects. Moreover, it has been shown that food produced using excessive amounts of fertilizer may have reduced nutritional value.

Impacts related to introduction of plant materials and seed:

Impacts may include introduction of invasive species. Use of poor-quality seed may result in introduction of soil pathogens, poor yields, and waste of resources. Seed treated with pesticides, if not properly handled, may result in adverse impacts to human health or risks to other non-target organisms.

Impacts related to use of pesticides: Pesticides can have adverse impacts on water quality, cause air pollution, pollute the soil, adversely impact human health, and adversely impact the health and safety of other non-target organisms. Pesticides can directly impact users and bystanders during improper agricultural use but also can indirectly impact the public by consumption of foods treated with pesticides and by exposure to pesticides released into the environment.

Impacts related to use of tools and machinery: Adverse impacts may include soil compaction, pollution from oil and fuel, particulate emissions, and risks to human health and safety. Use of draft animals will have impacts associated with the inputs to and wastes from livestock production.

Sub-activity 1.2: Agroforestry;

agricultural inputs (plant materials, pesticides) (excludes timber harvesting)

In addition to the potential impacts listed for Sub-activity 1.1, potential agroforestry and agricultural impacts will vary with crops/species chosen, agro-ecological zone, and cultivation practices used, and may include:

Introduction of non-native species: Unintentional or intentional introduction of new crops into the ecosystem may contribute to biodiversity loss. These can outcompete native species, causing loss of ecosystem services.

Establishing tree nurseries: Depending on the nature of practices, impacts of nurseries may be similar to those of crop production.

Impacts related to use of pesticides: Pesticides can have adverse impacts on water quality, cause air pollution, pollute soil and have adverse impacts on human health and the health and safety of all other non-target organisms. Pesticides can impact users and bystanders during agricultural production. Also, pesticides can indirectly affect individuals through exposure from consuming foods treated with pesticides, and exposure to pesticides that were released into the environment.

Sub-activity 1.3: Livestock production, use of veterinary products, veterinary pesticides

Potential specific impacts will vary with species chosen, livestock density, agro-ecological factors, proximity to water sources, production practices used, and other key parameters of the system. In general, adverse impacts associated with livestock production include:

Land degradation: Adverse impacts of livestock are associated with overgrazing and use of marginal lands, soil erosion and compaction, land degradation, loss of natural habitats, and in turn, resulting losses of biodiversity.

Watercourse degradation: Livestock that have free access to watercourses may impact the land bordering the watercourse (the riparian area) by trampling the spawning bed and streambanks resulting in siltation of the water and the removal of riparian vegetation.

Livestock impacts can include direct deposit of urine and manure into the water, making the water unfit for human consumption or resulting in human or animal diseases. This issue is exacerbated when manure in lowland regions that are seasonally flooded, or in regions where it can be washed into a watercourse.

Water pollution: Contamination may occur if nutrients from manure enter the water table because they are either improperly used or disposed of. Animal manures transported from fields, pens, or feedlots into water bodies through rainfall, runoff, or irrigation can pollute local drinking water sources and spread human and animal diseases. Water pollution can also be associated with improper processing and disposal of dead animals that release nutrients—as well as deleterious microorganisms and parasites—into the ground water as they decompose.

Loss of biodiversity: Animal breed has a strong influence on disease susceptibility and therefore on disease management.

Systematic livestock production may result in loss of genetic diversity in livestock species and subsequent susceptibility to disease outbreaks.

Air pollution: Livestock production can increase greenhouse gas emissions from enteric fermentation during digestion, livestock manure, and burning animal carcasses.

Social impacts: When policies do not consistently address the land tenure issue for farmers and pastoralists, livestock keepers may potentially increase animal stock beyond land carrying capacity, thus contributing to enhanced competition for resources and, eventually, conflicts that can become violent.

Human/animal conflicts: Landowners sometimes kill animal predators or competitors of their livestock, reducing native populations.

Animal transmitted diseases: A zoonotic disease is an infectious disease that is transmitted between species such as from animals to humans or from humans to animals. Animal transmitted diseases such as Brucellosis, Giardiasis, and Ringworm (Dermatophytosis) that are transmitted from animals to humans are widespread in Africa. Improper disposal of medicines and pesticides related to veterinary treatments could also impact nearby natural resources.

Potential competition for resources: Competition may exist where the tree, crop, and/or livestock activities overlap in their use of resources.