CIRCULAR Concept Paper FOA.pdf

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AR-311-02.23

FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE

FUNDING OPPORTUNITY ANNOUNCEMENT

ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECTS AGENCY – ENERGY (ARPA-E)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

CATALYZING INNOVATIVE RESEARCH FOR CIRCULAR USE OF

LONG-LIVED ADVANCED RECHARGEABLES (CIRCULAR)

Announcement Type: Initial Announcement Funding Opportunity No. DE-FOA- 0003303

CFDA Number 81.135

Funding Opportunity Announcement (FOA) Issue Date: January 31, 2024 First Deadline for Questions to ARPA-E-CO@hq.doe.gov: 5 PM ET, March 1, 2024 Submission Deadline for Concept Papers: 9:30 AM ET, March 12, 2024 Second Deadline for Questions to ARPA-E-CO@hq.doe.gov: 5 PM ET, TBD Submission Deadline for Full Applications: 9:30 AM ET, TBD Submission Deadline for Replies to Reviewer Comments: 5 PM ET, TBD Expected Date for Selection Notifications: September 2024 Total Amount to Be Awarded Approximately $30 million, subject to the availability of appropriated funds.

Anticipated Awards ARPA-E may issue one, multiple, or no awards under this FOA. The Federal share of awards may vary between $500,000 and $5 million.

• For eligibility criteria, see Section III.A of the FOA.

• For cost share requirements under this FOA, see Section III.B of the FOA.

• To apply to this FOA, Applicants must register with and submit application materials through ARPA-E eXCHANGE (https://arpa-e-foa.energy.gov/Registration.aspx). For detailed guidance on using ARPA-E eXCHANGE, see Section IV.H.1 of the FOA.

• Applicants are responsible for meeting each submission deadline. Applicants are strongly encouraged to submit their applications at least 48 hours in advance of the submission deadline.

• For detailed guidance on compliance and responsiveness criteria, see Sections III.C.1 through III.C.4 of the FOA.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

REQUIRED DOCUMENTS CHECKLIST ................................................................................................................... - 1 -

I. FUNDING OPPORTUNITY DESCRIPTION ..................................................................................................... - 2 -

A. AGENCY OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................................... - 2 - B. PROGRAM OVERVIEW........................................................................................................................................ - 4 -

1. BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................................ - 4 - C. PROGRAM OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................................... - 11 - D. TECHNICAL CATEGORIES OF INTEREST ................................................................................................................. - 12 - E. TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE TARGETS .................................................................................................................. - 15 -

II. AWARD INFORMATION ........................................................................................................................... - 21 -

A. AWARD OVERVIEW ......................................................................................................................................... - 21 - B. RENEWAL AWARDS ......................................................................................................................................... - 21 - C. ARPA-E FUNDING AGREEMENTS ...................................................................................................................... - 22 -

1. COOPERATIVE AGREEMENTS........................................................................................................................ - 22 -

2. FUNDING AGREEMENTS WITH FFRDCS/DOE LABS, GOGOS, AND FEDERAL INSTRUMENTALITIES .......................... - 22 -

3. OTHER TRANSACTIONS AUTHORITY .............................................................................................................. - 23 -

D. STATEMENT OF SUBSTANTIAL INVOLVEMENT ....................................................................................................... - 24 -

III. ELIGIBILITY INFORMATION ...................................................................................................................... - 25 -

A. ELIGIBLE APPLICANTS ....................................................................................................................................... - 25 -

1. INDIVIDUALS ............................................................................................................................................. - 25 -

2. DOMESTIC ENTITIES ................................................................................................................................... - 25 -

3. FOREIGN ENTITIES ..................................................................................................................................... - 25 -

4. CONSORTIUM ENTITIES ............................................................................................................................... - 26 -

B. COST SHARING ............................................................................................................................................... - 26 -

1. BASE COST SHARE REQUIREMENT ................................................................................................................ - 26 -

2. INCREASED COST SHARE REQUIREMENT ........................................................................................................ - 27 -

3. REDUCED COST SHARE REQUIREMENT .......................................................................................................... - 27 -

4. LEGAL RESPONSIBILITY ............................................................................................................................... - 28 -

5. COST SHARE ALLOCATION ........................................................................................................................... - 28 -

6. COST SHARE TYPES AND ALLOWABILITY ........................................................................................................ - 28 -

7. COST SHARE CONTRIBUTIONS BY FFRDCS AND GOGOS .................................................................................. - 29 -

8. COST SHARE VERIFICATION ......................................................................................................................... - 30 -

C. OTHER .......................................................................................................................................................... - 30 -

1. COMPLIANT CRITERIA ................................................................................................................................. - 30 -

2. RESPONSIVENESS CRITERIA.......................................................................................................................... - 31 -

3. SUBMISSIONS SPECIFICALLY NOT OF INTEREST ................................................................................................. - 32 -

4. LIMITATION ON NUMBER OF SUBMISSIONS .................................................................................................... - 32 -

IV. APPLICATION AND SUBMISSION INFORMATION ................................................................................. - 33 -

A. APPLICATION PROCESS OVERVIEW ..................................................................................................................... - 33 -

1. REGISTRATION IN ARPA-E eXCHANGE....................................................................................................... - 33 -

2. CONCEPT PAPERS ...................................................................................................................................... - 33 -

3. FULL APPLICATIONS ................................................................................................................................... - 33 -http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq mailto:ExchangeHelp@hq.doe.gov

Questions about this FOA? Check the Frequently Asked Questions available at http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq. For questions that have not already been answered, email ARPA-E-CO@hq.doe.gov (with FOA name and number in subject line); see FOA Sec. VII.A.

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4. REPLY TO REVIEWER COMMENTS ................................................................................................................. - 34 -

5. PRE-SELECTION CLARIFICATIONS AND “DOWN-SELECT” PROCESS ...................................................................... - 34 -

6. SELECTION FOR AWARD NEGOTIATIONS ........................................................................................................ - 34 -

B. APPLICATION FORMS ....................................................................................................................................... - 35 - C. CONTENT AND FORM OF CONCEPT PAPERS .......................................................................................................... - 35 -

1. CONCEPT PAPER ........................................................................................................................................ - 36 - A. CONCEPT SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................. - 36 - B. INNOVATION AND IMPACT .......................................................................................................................... - 36 - C. PROPOSED WORK ..................................................................................................................................... - 36 - D. TEAM ORGANIZATION AND CAPABILITIES ...................................................................................................... - 37 -

D. CONTENT AND FORM OF FULL APPLICATIONS ....................................................................................................... - 37 - E. CONTENT AND FORM OF REPLIES TO REVIEWER COMMENTS .................................................................................. - 37 - F. INTERGOVERNMENTAL REVIEW ......................................................................................................................... - 37 - G. FUNDING RESTRICTIONS ................................................................................................................................... - 37 -

1. ALLOWABLE COSTS .................................................................................................................................... - 37 -

2. PRE-AWARD COSTS ................................................................................................................................... - 37 -

3. PATENT COSTS .......................................................................................................................................... - 38 -

4. CONSTRUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... - 38 -

5. FOREIGN TRAVEL ....................................................................................................................................... - 38 -

6. PERFORMANCE OF WORK IN THE UNITED STATES............................................................................................ - 38 -

7. PURCHASE OF NEW EQUIPMENT .................................................................................................................. - 39 -

8. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND OUTREACH ...................................................................................................... - 39 -

9. LOBBYING ................................................................................................................................................ - 40 -

10. CONFERENCE SPENDING ............................................................................................................................. - 40 -

11. INDEPENDENT RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT COSTS....................................................................................... - 40 -

12. PROHIBITION ON CERTAIN TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND VIDEO SURVEILLANCE SERVICES OR EQUIPMENT ................. - 41 -

13. BUY AMERICA REQUIREMENT FOR PUBLIC INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS .............................................................. - 41 -

14. REQUIREMENT FOR FINANCIAL PERSONNEL .................................................................................................... - 42 -

H. OTHER SUBMISSION REQUIREMENTS .................................................................................................................. - 42 -

1. USE OF ARPA-E eXCHANGE .................................................................................................................... - 42 -

V. APPLICATION REVIEW INFORMATION ..................................................................................................... - 44 -

A. CRITERIA ....................................................................................................................................................... - 44 -

1. CRITERIA FOR CONCEPT PAPERS ................................................................................................................... - 44 -

2. CRITERIA FOR FULL APPLICATIONS ................................................................................................................ - 45 -

3. CRITERIA FOR REPLIES TO REVIEWER COMMENTS ............................................................................................ - 45 -

B. REVIEW AND SELECTION PROCESS ...................................................................................................................... - 45 -

1. PROGRAM POLICY FACTORS ........................................................................................................................ - 45 -

2. ARPA-E REVIEWERS ................................................................................................................................. - 46 -

3. ARPA-E SUPPORT CONTRACTORS ............................................................................................................... - 46 -

C. ANTICIPATED ANNOUNCEMENT AND AWARD DATES ............................................................................................. - 47 -

VI. AWARD ADMINISTRATION INFORMATION ......................................................................................... - 48 -

A. AWARD NOTICES ............................................................................................................................................ - 48 -

1. REJECTED SUBMISSIONS ............................................................................................................................. - 48 -

2. CONCEPT PAPER NOTIFICATIONS .................................................................................................................. - 48 -http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq

Questions about this FOA? Check the Frequently Asked Questions available at http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq. For questions that have not already been answered, email ARPA-E-CO@hq.doe.gov (with FOA name and number in subject line); see FOA Sec. VII.A.

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3. FULL APPLICATION NOTIFICATIONS ............................................................................................................... - 48 - B. ADMINISTRATIVE AND NATIONAL POLICY REQUIREMENTS ..................................................................................... - 48 -

1. UNIQUE ENTITY IDENTIFIER AND SAM, FSRS, AND FEDCONNECT REGISTRATIONS ............................................... - 49 -

2. NATIONAL POLICY ASSURANCES ................................................................................................................... - 50 -

3. PROOF OF COST SHARE COMMITMENT AND ALLOWABILITY .............................................................................. - 50 -

4. COST SHARE PAYMENTS ............................................................................................................................. - 50 -

5. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................................... - 51 -

6. TECHNOLOGY-TO-MARKET PLAN ................................................................................................................. - 51 -

7. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND DATA MANAGEMENT PLANS ............................................................................. - 51 -

8. U.S. COMPETITIVENESS .............................................................................................................................. - 52 -

9. CORPORATE FELONY CONVICTIONS AND FEDERAL TAX LIABILITY ........................................................................ - 53 -

10. APPLICANT RISK ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................................... - 54 -

11. RECIPIENT INTEGRITY AND PERFORMANCE MATTERS ....................................................................................... - 54 -

12. NONDISCLOSURE AND CONFIDENTIALITY AGREEMENTS REPRESENTATIONS .......................................................... - 55 -

13. INTERIM CONFLICT OF INTEREST POLICY FOR FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE .................................................................. - 56 -

14. COMMERCIALIZATION PLAN AND SOFTWARE REPORTING ................................................................................. - 56 -

15. FRAUD, WASTE, AND ABUSE ....................................................................................................................... - 56 -

C. REPORTING .................................................................................................................................................... - 57 -

VII. AGENCY CONTACTS ............................................................................................................................. - 58 -

A. COMMUNICATIONS WITH ARPA-E .................................................................................................................... - 58 - B. DEBRIEFINGS .................................................................................................................................................. - 59 -

VIII. OTHER INFORMATION ......................................................................................................................... - 60 -

A. TITLE TO SUBJECT INVENTIONS .......................................................................................................................... - 60 - B. GOVERNMENT RIGHTS IN SUBJECT INVENTIONS.................................................................................................... - 60 -

1. GOVERNMENT USE LICENSE ........................................................................................................................ - 61 -

2. MARCH-IN RIGHTS .................................................................................................................................... - 61 -

C. RIGHTS IN TECHNICAL DATA .............................................................................................................................. - 61 - D. PROTECTED PERSONALLY IDENTIFIABLE INFORMATION .......................................................................................... - 62 - E. FOAS AND FOA MODIFICATIONS ...................................................................................................................... - 62 - F. OBLIGATION OF PUBLIC FUNDS.......................................................................................................................... - 63 - G. REQUIREMENT FOR FULL AND COMPLETE DISCLOSURE .......................................................................................... - 63 - H. RETENTION OF SUBMISSIONS ............................................................................................................................ - 63 - I. MARKING OF CONFIDENTIAL INFORMATION ........................................................................................................ - 63 - J. EXPORT CONTROL INFORMATION ...................................................................................................................... - 64 - K. COMPLIANCE AUDIT REQUIREMENT ................................................................................................................... - 64 -

IX. GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................................... - 65 -http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq

Questions about this FOA? Check the Frequently Asked Questions available at http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq. For questions that have not already been answered, email ARPA-E-CO@hq.doe.gov (with FOA name and number in subject line); see FOA Sec. VII.A.

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- 1 -

REQUIRED DOCUMENTS CHECKLIST

For an overview of the application process, see Section IV.A of the FOA.

For guidance regarding requisite application forms, see Section IV.B of the FOA.

For guidance regarding the content and form of Concept Papers, Full Applications, and Replies to Reviewer Comments, see Sections IV.C, IV.D, and IV.E of the FOA.

SUBMISSION COMPONENTS OPTIONAL/

MANDATORY

FOA

SECTION DEADLINE

Concept Paper

• Each Applicant must submit a Concept Paper in Adobe PDF format by the stated deadline. The Concept Paper must not exceed 4 pages in length including graphics, figures, and/or tables, and must include the following:

o Concept Summary o Innovation and Impact o Proposed Work o Team Organization and Capabilities

Mandatory IV.C

9:30 AM ET,

March 19, Full Application [TO BE INSERTED BY FOA MODIFICATION IN MAY 2024] Mandatory IV.D 9:30 AM ET, TBD

Reply to Reviewer Comments

[TO BE INSERTED BY FOA MODIFICATION IN MAY 2024]

Optional IV.E 5 PM ET, TBD http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq mailto:ARPA-E-OpenFOA@hq.doe.gov

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- 2 -

I. FUNDING OPPORTUNITY DESCRIPTION

A. AGENCY OVERVIEW

The Advanced Research Projects Agency – Energy (ARPA-E), an organization within the Department of Energy (DOE), is chartered by Congress in the America COMPETES Act of 2007 (P.L. 110-69), as amended by the America COMPETES Reauthorization Act of 2010 (P.L. 111- 358), as further amended by the Energy Act of 2020 (P.L. 116-260):

“(A) to enhance the economic and energy security of the United States through the development of energy technologies that—

(i) reduce imports of energy from foreign sources;

(ii) reduce energy-related emissions, including greenhouse gases;

(iii) improve the energy efficiency of all economic sectors;

(iv) provide transformative solutions to improve the management, clean-up, and disposal of radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel; and

(v) improve the resilience, reliability, and security of infrastructure to produce, deliver, and store energy; and

(B) to ensure that the United States maintains a technological lead in developing and deploying advanced energy technologies.”

ARPA-E issues this Funding Opportunity Announcement (FOA) under its authorizing statute codified at 42 U.S.C. § 16538. The FOA and any cooperative agreements or grants made under this FOA are subject to 2 C.F.R. Part 200 as supplemented by 2 C.F.R. Part 910.

ARPA-E funds research on, and the development of, transformative science and technology solutions to address the energy and environmental missions of the Department. The agency focuses on technologies that can be meaningfully advanced with a modest investment over a defined period of time in order to catalyze the translation from scientific discovery to early-stage technology. For the latest news and information about ARPA-E, its programs and the research projects currently supported, see: http://arpa-e.energy.gov/.

ARPA-E funds transformational research. Existing energy technologies generally progress on established “learning curves” where refinements to a technology and the economies of scale that accrue as manufacturing and distribution develop drive improvements to the cost/performance metric in a gradual fashion. This continual improvement of a technology is important to its increased commercial deployment and is appropriately the focus of the private sector or the applied technology offices within DOE. In contrast, ARPA-E supports transformative research that has the potential to create fundamentally new learning curves.

ARPA-E technology projects typically start with cost/performance estimates well above the level of an incumbent technology. Given the high risk inherent in these projects, many will fail to progress, but some may succeed in generating a new learning curve with a projected cost/performance metric that is significantly better than that of the incumbent technology.

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- 3 -

ARPA-E funds technology with the potential to be disruptive in the marketplace. The mere creation of a new learning curve does not ensure market penetration. Rather, the ultimate value of a technology is determined by the marketplace, and impactful technologies ultimately become disruptive – that is, they are widely adopted and displace existing technologies from the marketplace or create entirely new markets. ARPA-E understands that definitive proof of market disruption takes time, particularly for energy technologies. Therefore, ARPA-E funds the development of technologies that, if technically successful, have clear disruptive potential, e.g., by demonstrating capability for manufacturing at competitive cost and deployment at scale.

ARPA-E funds applied research and development. The Office of Management and Budget defines “applied research” as an “original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge…directed primarily towards a specific practical aim or objective” and defines “experimental development” as “creative and systematic work, drawing on knowledge gained from research and practical experience, which is directed at producing new products or processes or improving existing products or processes.”1 Applicants interested in receiving financial assistance for basic research (defined by the Office of Management and Budget as “experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of the underlying foundations of phenomena and observable facts”)2 should contact the DOE’s Office of Science (http://science.energy.gov/). Office of Science national scientific user facilities (http://science.energy.gov/user-facilities/) are open to all researchers, including ARPA-E Applicants and awardees. These facilities provide advanced tools of modern science including accelerators, colliders, supercomputers, light sources and neutron sources, as well as facilities for studying the nanoworld, the environment, and the atmosphere. Projects focused on early-stage R&D for the improvement of technology along defined roadmaps may be more appropriate for support through the DOE applied energy offices including: the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (http://www.eere.energy.gov/), the Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management (https://www.energy.gov/fecm/office-fossil-energy-and-carbon-management), the Office of Nuclear Energy (http://www.energy.gov/ne/office-nuclear-energy), and the Office of Electricity (https://www.energy.gov/oe/office-electricity).

1 OMB Circular A-11 (https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/a11_web_toc.pdf), Section 84,

pg. 3.

2 OMB Circular A-11 (https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/a11_web_toc.pdf), Section 84,

pg. 3.

http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq mailto:ARPA-E-OpenFOA@hq.doe.gov mailto:ExchangeHelp@hq.doe.gov http://science.energy.gov/ http://science.energy.gov/user-facilities/ http://www.eere.energy.gov/ https://www.energy.gov/fecm/office-fossil-energy-and-carbon-management https://www.energy.gov/fecm/office-fossil-energy-and-carbon-management http://www.energy.gov/ne/office-nuclear-energy https://www.energy.gov/oe/office-electricity

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- 4 -

B. PROGRAM OVERVIEW

1. BACKGROUND

Motivation

The electric vehicle (EV) market is growing rapidly. Although globally, a modest 3% of passenger vehicles on the road are electric, the number is expected to increase to 28% by 2030 and 58% by 2040.3 The EV revolution will be driven primarily by a combination of the following considerations:

• Consumer demand for cleaner vehicles;

• Fluctuations and uncertainties in the price of gasoline;

• Reductions in the price of EVs;

• Emerging legislation that may limit or even prohibit the sale of internal combustion engine vehicles; and

• Financial incentives to purchase EVs in the form of rebates and/or tax credits.

The most critical factor motivating EV adoption by consumers may be more attractive economics made possible by significant reductions in the cost of lithium-ion battery (LIB) packs.

Already, prices have decreased from approximately ~$1,300 per kilowatt-hour (kWh) in 2010 to about $150/kWh in 2022 and are projected to fall below $80/kWh by 2030.3 This reduction in pack cost has been achieved through economies of scale, improved manufacturing processes, and the introduction of new battery chemistries that reduce or eliminate the requirement for critical and expensive minerals, particularly cobalt.4

Current EV manufacturing practices have been established along a linear economic model of “take, make, use, and dispose” with negligible consideration for battery end of life (EOL).

However, significant increases in the number of EVs will be accompanied by large volumes of battery waste, albeit with a 10- to 20-year lag, depending on both the type of battery and conditions of use. The disposal of spent batteries is challenging due to fire hazards and/or potential releases of toxic chemicals into the environment. The existing supply chain for EV batteries relies mostly on recycling to close the loop to recover a fraction of critical minerals.

However, conventional battery recycling methods such as pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy are energy-intensive, produce significant quantities of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and lead to large volumes of waste deposited in landfills. These approaches require shredding cell modules or whole batteries, and with few exceptions, intentionally recover only the most valuable materials (e.g., nickel, cobalt, and copper). Although direct recycling5 is less energy intensive

3 Bloomberg NEF. (n.d.). Electric Vehicle Outlook 2023. https://about.bnef.com/electric-vehicle-outlook/ 4 Wood Mackenzie. (2022, March 22). Global lithium-ion battery capacity to rise five-fold by 2030.

https://www.woodmac.com/press-releases/global-lithium-ion-battery-capacity-to-rise-five-fold-by-2030/ 5 Gaines, L., Dai, Q., Vaughey, J. T., & Gillard, S. (2021). Direct Recycling R&D at the ReCell Center. Recycling, 6(2),

31. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling6020031 http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq mailto:ARPA-E-OpenFOA@hq.doe.gov mailto:ExchangeHelp@hq.doe.gov https://about.bnef.com/electric-vehicle-outlook/ https://www.woodmac.com/press-releases/global-lithium-ion-battery-capacity-to-rise-five-fold-by-2030/ https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling6020031

Questions about this FOA? Check the Frequently Asked Questions available at http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq. For questions that have not already been answered, email ARPA-E-CO@hq.doe.gov (with FOA name and number in subject line); see FOA Sec. VII.A.

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- 5 -and has a smaller carbon footprint than pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes,6 it also requires shredding and thus destroys the embedded manufacturing value of spent battery packs and their constituent components.

These recycling strategies are expected to endure increasingly challenging economics as battery chemistries that rely on more abundant and/or less expensive minerals capture increasingly significant market share. For instance, lithium iron phosphate (LFP) has made inroads into the EV battery market in recent years. 3 Prolonging the service life of EV batteries and recovering the manufacturing value of spent batteries to the greatest extent possible through regeneration, repair, reuse, and remanufacture will reduce the demand for critical minerals, as well as the domestic energy burden and the subsequent carbon footprint of the EV battery supply chain. Figure 1 illustrates the different approaches that can be developed to achieve a circular EV battery supply chain including swapping, regenerating, repairing, and remanufacturing. Here, recycling is considered a process of last resort.

Figure 1. Illustration of the current linear EV supply chain and different strategies to achieve a circular EV battery alternative with recycling as a process of last resort.

Lessons Learned from Lead-Acid Batteries

The supply chain for commercial lead-acid batteries used in ICE vehicles is frequently highlighted as an example of a successful circular supply chain achieved solely through recycling.7 First, ninety-nine percent of lead-acid batteries are recycled in the U.S.8 This is due in

6 Gaines, L., Richa, K., & Spangenberger, J. (2018). Key issues for Li-ion battery recycling. MRS Energy &

Sustainability, 5, E14. https://doi.org/10.1557/mre.2018.13 7 Gaines, L. (2014). The future of automotive lithium-ion battery recycling: Charting a sustainable course.

Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 1-2, 2-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2014.10.001 8 Battery Council International. (2014, April 1). National Recycling Rate Study – an impressive 99%. Gopher

Resource. https://www.gopherresource.com/newsroom/national-recycling-rate-study.html http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq mailto:ARPA-E-OpenFOA@hq.doe.gov mailto:ExchangeHelp@hq.doe.gov https://doi.org/10.1557/mre.2018.13 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2014.10.001 https://www.gopherresource.com/newsroom/national-recycling-rate-study.html

Questions about this FOA? Check the Frequently Asked Questions available at http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq. For questions that have not already been answered, email ARPA-E-CO@hq.doe.gov (with FOA name and number in subject line); see FOA Sec. VII.A.

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- 6 -part to an efficient and incentivized recovery strategy where owners can exchange spent batteries towards the purchase of a new ones at a discounted price. Second, lead-acid batteries use an aqueous electrolyte and electrodes in the form of millimeter thick lead (Pb) and lead oxide (PbO2) plates. This simple design and chemical composition enable facile separation of electrodes, electrolyte, and plastic casing for recycling.9 However, lead-acid battery recycling is an energy intensive process that includes comminution, melt-processing and extrusion of plastics, and smelting of lead-containing components.10 The practice also raises major concerns over environmental contamination and human exposure to toxic lead.

Effective methods exist for regenerating lead-acid batteries. For example, these batteries may degrade due to lead sulfate (PbSO4) crystal formation on the Pb electrode during discharge.

Upon deep discharge, or if the battery is left discharged for a long time, a hard and thick layer of PbSO4 can grow and significantly reduce the battery’s performance. Several methods have been shown to regenerate Pb electrodes by reversing PbSO4 formation. Pulse conditioning consists of imposing a high voltage pulse which electrochemically reverses the PbSO4 formation reactions without causing excessive heating. Alternatively, adding chemicals to the sulfuric acid electrolyte can help remove the PbSO4 layer.

The supply chain model for lead-acid batteries is difficult to reproduce for LIB packs. For example, LIBs use flammable, reactive, and hazardous organic electrolytes instead of water.

They exhibit architectural and compositional complexity of thin film electrodes and have a significantly higher energy content. Despite this, EV batteries may be able to emulate some of the following lead-acid battery design features to promote circularity:

• The ability to swap one battery pack for another;

• The ability to prolong battery life by regenerating electrode materials in situ (e.g., pulse conditioning, chemical treatment) and/or by replenishing the electrolyte;

• The simplicity of the materials chemistry, design, and manufacturing which makes batteries easy to disassemble and to separate the anodes, cathodes, electrolyte, as well as casing to facilitate repair, remanufacture, and recycling; and

• The standardization of battery chemistry and form factor.

Technology Needs for a Circular EV Battery Supply Chain

A major shift in conventional thinking and operation is required to realize a truly circular EV battery supply chain with innovations and practices that consider EOL while recognizing the need for recycling as a process of last resort. The following sections briefly discuss examples of materials, designs, and manufacturing strategies that may contribute to the development of a

9 Battery Council International. (2023, July). National Recycling Rate Study.

https://batterycouncil.org/resource/national-recycling-rate-study/ 10 Battery Council International. (n.d.). How a Lead Battery Is Recycled. https://batterycouncil.org/recycling-sustainability/how-a-lead-battery-is-recycled/ http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq mailto:ARPA-E-OpenFOA@hq.doe.gov mailto:ExchangeHelp@hq.doe.gov https://batterycouncil.org/resource/national-recycling-rate-study/ https://batterycouncil.org/recycling-sustainability/how-a-lead-battery-is-recycled/ https://batterycouncil.org/recycling-sustainability/how-a-lead-battery-is-recycled/

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- 7 -circular EV battery supply chain. The topics highlighted in the following sections are illustrative examples of potential solutions capable of achieving the Catalyzing Innovative Research for Circular Use of Long-lived Advanced Rechargeables (CIRCULAR) program objectives. Note that there is no preference in favor of these specific approaches nor against other possibilities not explicitly mentioned. Figure 2 depicts the program’s vision of the circular EV supply chain that may be achieved through the innovative technologies and business models discussed in the next sections.

Figure 2. Illustration of the research and development needs and financial strategies that can be deployed along a circular EV battery supply chain.

Prolonging Battery Cell Life

Battery degradation may proceed through different chemical pathways depending on the selection of electrode materials, electrolyte compositions, cell designs, and cycling conditions.

For example, rapid charging of conventional LIBs in cold temperatures can result in undesired lithium plating and dendrite formation at the graphite anode due to sluggish lithium intercalation and phase transitions. In turn, this phenomenon leads to a loss of active lithium inventory as lithium ions (Li+) no longer participate in reversible redox reactions. Conceivably, strategies capable of efficiently and cost-effectively limiting degradation mechanisms and/or regenerating battery materials to their beginning of life (BOL) performance are promising options for extending the service life of individual battery cells in support of circularity. Such techniques can be performed ex situ or in situ, although the latter may be more desirable from an implementation perspective. To date, limited investigative effort has been dedicated to these approaches, which also necessitate innovations in cell design depending on the battery http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq

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- 8 -chemistry and the methods used to prolong battery life. Arguably, cell regeneration would be most valuable for electrode materials that degrade more rapidly than others, including mixed metal oxides of nickel, manganese, cobalt, or aluminum (e.g., NMC or NCA) conventionally used in LIBs. Finally, safety of the redesigned cells during fabrication, operation, and regeneration should be maintained according to current industry standards.

Reversible Manufacturing for Easy Repair, Upgrade, Reuse, and Remanufacture

Battery pack repair and remanufacture promote circularity of the EV battery supply chain through replacement of defective and/or deteriorated components. Within each aging, defective, or spent battery pack there may exist individual salvageable battery cells, modules, and components which could potentially be economically recovered, reused, or recycled, and in all cases removed from waste streams. Reincorporating these salvaged components into new or refurbished battery packs preserves their embedded manufacturing value. A recycling stream consisting of only spent cells would yield black mass with a higher concentration of critical materials and therefore higher recycling value per unit mass. Simple, rapid, and safe disassembly procedures could additionally facilitate rework of defective battery packs during production, and thereby reduce the quantity of scrap generated by gigafactories. Streamlined disassembly could also enable the replacement of aging battery pack components as a preventative measure or to improve performance.

Battery repair may be more intrusive, time consuming, and expensive compared to in situ battery regeneration, but could still be performed by qualified technical staff in specialized facilities or dealership service departments. This approach would benefit from a holistic design of EVs and battery packs and a judicious selection of materials and manufacturing methods, which would promote safe and convenient disassembly to access components that are more prone to failure earlier in life, e.g., the battery management system (BMS) or cooling pump.

Representative technical approaches to realize so-called “reversible manufacturing,” which refers to the ability to “unmanufacture” battery packs as rapidly or easily as they are manufactured, include the following:

• Design for Reversible Assembly: Existing battery packs that were not originally designed with the EOL in mind require arduous and time-consuming disassembly processes during recycling. By contrast, sustainable designs would enable individual cells, BMS, thermal management components, etc., to be easily isolated, serviced, reused, replaced, and upgraded. Then, only defective cells and deteriorated components that have reached their EOL would require recycling, instead of shredding entire modules or packs.

Moreover, a modular design would make this solution highly scalable.

• High Strength Debondable Adhesives: Adhesives are critical to the safe and reliable operation of EV batteries by ensuring that cells, modules, and other critical pack components can withstand mechanical vibrations and shocks. Successful application of high strength, debondable adhesives with equivalent performance to conventional adhesives used in commercial battery packs would simplify disassembly. In principle, stimuli-responsive systems that react to specific wavelengths of light, ultrasound, http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq

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- 9 -electric and/or magnetic fields, etc., may be leveraged to achieve clean and controlled debonding of battery pack adhesives.

• Reversible Welding and Joining Techniques: Welding is the conventional joining technique employed in battery packs primarily due to its long-term durability, mechanical strength, and low interfacial electrical resistance. Effective and scalable strategies for reversible welding or more generally reversible joining of cells, modules, and other battery pack components would facilitate recovery of individual cells. Battery pack designs that circumvent the requirement for permanent joining, either partially or entirely, would be especially advantageous for separating battery packs into individual components. For example, compression technology could be utilized to reduce the number of permanently bonded components while mitigating the risk that fasteners loosen over time.11

Sustainable designs, innovative materials, and reversible manufacturing techniques can enable the safe and rapid manual disassembly of batteries for repair, reuse, remanufacture, and recycling. A complementary or alternative approach to manual disassembly could rely on autonomous robotic disassembly of battery packs.

Autonomous Robotic Disassembly

Currently, manual disassembly of battery packs into individual modules typically takes several hours due to complex, irreversible designs and manufacturing methods, including welded parts and the use of permanent adhesives that are difficult to remove. The high voltage of EV batteries (400 V to 800 V) is also a major safety concern, complicating manual disassembly even when performed by highly trained technicians. Therefore, robotic disassembly of battery packs may be a promising option to increase safety and throughput and simultaneously reduce the cost of repair, reuse, remanufacturing, and recycling, thereby enabling scalable solutions capable of handling the projected future growth of spent EV battery volumes.

Given the wide variety of battery pack designs and manufacturing methods among EV models and their evolution over time, as well as the potential degradation of battery packs during use (e.g., rusty bolts), robotic disassembly should be able to autonomously select, evaluate, and adapt unmanufacturing processes for each EV battery pack. Such autonomous robotic disassembly systems should have the ability to learn from their own experiences, from those of other robots, or from simulations, videos, or other media. Strategies may also need to be developed to coordinate the disassembly of battery packs cooperatively between robots and humans. This vision could be achieved by leveraging recent advances in artificial intelligence and machine learning, for example.

Finally, inspection of the battery pack to determine geometric parameters, aging conditions, and potential defects that could compromise safety may be necessary prior to attempting robotic disassembly. The design and manufacture of battery packs may need to be modified to enable the practical implementation of these approaches.

11 Chandan, A., & Cummins, C. (2022, February 24). Battery pack assembly (2022/0059898 A1).

https://www.freepatentsonline.com/y2022/0059898.html http://arpa-e.energy.gov/faq mailto:ARPA-E-OpenFOA@hq.doe.gov https://www.freepatentsonline.com/y2022/0059898.html

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