B13 Mexican_Wolf_Husbandry_Manual_2009.pdf

Mexican Gray Wolf Husbandry Manual

2009 Edition

MEXICAN GRAY WOLF HUSBANDRY MANUAL:

GUIDELINES FOR CAPTIVE MANAGEMENT

Mexican Wolf Species Survival Plan© http://www.fws.gov/southwest/es/mexicanwolf

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Mexican Wolf Species Survival Plan© and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service would like to thank the following contributors for their assistance in the creation and updating of the Mexican Gray Wolf Husbandry Manual:

• 1995 MWSSP Management Group for an earlier edition of the husbandry manual.

• Dr. Susan Lyndaker Lindsey and Kim Scott of the Wild Canid Survival and Research Center in St. Louis for the initial rewrite of the husbandry manual as the MWSSP Keeper Training Workshop Manual.

• Elizabeth Quandt-Evans of the Wild Canid Survival and Research Center in St.

Louis for her work on the 2003-2004 rewrite.

• Dr. Susan Lyndaker Lindsey and the MWSSP Management Group and its advisors for the 2006-2007 update of the manual.

• Cover photo: 2008 litter of SB572 and SB685 at one week of age taken by Wild

Canid Center staff member Julie Tasch. Litter totaling eleven pups was the result of early induced ovulation research. All rights reserved by the Wild Canid Survival and Research Center.

The 2009 edition of the Mexican Gray Wolf Husbandry Manual is a living document and will be updated as new information becomes available. The Mexican Gray Wolf SSP Management Group expresses its sincere gratitude to the many individuals who have contributed their time and expertise to the care and recovery of this endangered species.

Susan Lyndaker Lindsey, Ph. D.

Wild Canid Survival and Research Center MWSSP Behavior and Husbandry Advisor i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Acknowledgements i

2. Table of Contents ii

3. List of Figures iii

4. List of Appendices v

5. Introduction 1

6. SSP© Management Group 2

7. Chapter 1 Species Survival Plan (SSP©) for the Mexican Gray Wolf 6

8. Chapter 2 Population Management 8

9. Chapter 3 General Biology – Natural History – Reintroduction 12

10. Chapter 4 Behavioral and Social Characteristics 17

11. Chapter 5 Housing and Enclosure Requirements – Daily Maintenance 31

12. Chapter 6

Identification and Records 51

13. Chapter 7 Capture and Restraint 59

14. Chapter 8

Health and Medical Care 69

15. Chapter 9 Basic Nutrition 95

16. Chapter 10

Transport and Shipping 105

17. Bibliography 122

18. Appendices Title Page 137

19. Appendix A Return of El Lobo: A Recovery Program Coming of Age

By Ken Kawata 138

20. Appendix B

Mexican Gray Wolf Restoration in the Southwest U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Pamphlet 149

21. Appendix C Facilities Currently Participating in the Mexican Gray Wolf

Species Survival Plan© 158 ii

List of Figures Figure 3-A. Maps of historic range and recovery zones of Mexican gray wolf 15 Figure 3-B. Important dates in Mexican gray wolf history 16 Figure 4-A. Facial expressions of the wolf 23 Figure 4-B. Expressive positions of the wolf’s tail 23 Figure 4-C. Presentation and withdrawal of the anal parts 24 Figure 4-D. A subordinate wolf usually shows “active submission” by holding its tail and head down when approaching a dominant animal 24

Figure 4-E. Management Ethogram 25 Figure 4-F. AZA Wildlife Contraception Center

Recommendations for Wolves 28 Figure 5-A. Typical den box design 37 Figure 5-B. Sample daily observation log 38 Figure 5-C. A Report on Stable Fly Problems

By Ken Kawata/Belle Isle Zoo Curator 39 Figure 5-D. Table 2 from RWSSP Husbandry Manual: Control methods used for flies 43 Figure 5-E. Table 3 from RWSSP Husbandry Manual: Control methods used for fleas and ticks. 45 Figure 5-F. Table 4 from RWSSP Husbandry Manual: Exhibit/management modification used to reduce the problems with insects………………… 45 Figure 5-G. Smithsonian National Zoo stable fly trap design…………………………. 46 Figure 5-H. Request for Information on Alternative Fly, Flea, and Tick

Control Methods 47 Figure 5-I. Environmental Enrichment for Mexican Gray Wolves 48 Figure 6-A. Sample of an individual daily log 53 Figure 6-B. Sample ISIS Specimen Report 54 Figure 6-C. Mexican Wolf Record Keeping Guidelines 55 Figure 6-D. Sample Mexican Wolf Medical Report 57 Figure 6-E. Sample Mexican Wolf Reproduction Report 58 Figure 7-A. Capture Myopathy article from http://zcog.org 66 Figure 8-A. Mexican Wolf Vaccination Protocol 77 Figure 8-B. Antiparasitic Treatment Guidelines 78 Figure 8-C. Sample Medical/Capture Record 79 Figure 8-D. Anesthesia Regimen Guidelines 80 Figure 8-E. Average Weights and Measures 81 Figure 8-F. Hematologic values of captive Mexican wolves 82 Figure 8-G. Mexican wolf necropsy protocol 85 Figure 8-H. ISIS/MedArks Blood Values for the Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) 93 Figure 9-A. Analysis of a New Diet for Mexican Gray (Canis lupus baileyi) and Red (Canis rufus gregoryi) Wolves 98 Figure 9-B. Hand-rearing guidelines 104 Figure 10-A. Certificate of Veterinary Inspection (Health certificate) 109 Figure 10-B. USDA Animal Transfer Form 110 iii http://zcog.org

Figure 10-C. AAZK Animal Data Transfer Form 111 Figure 10-D. AAZK Enrichment Data Transfer Form 112 Figure 10-E. IATA Shipping crate requirements 115 Figure 10-F. Certificate of Acclimation 118 Figure 10-G. Example of crate label 118 Figure 10-H. Wolf shipment check list 119 Figure 10-I. Wolf arrival check list 120 Figure 10-J. International shipment check list 121 iv

List of Appendices

Appendix A. Return of El Lobo: A Recovery Program Coming of Age

Ken Kawata 138

Appendix B. Mexican Gray Wolf Restoration in the Southwest

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Pamphlet 149

Appendix C. Facilities currently participating in the Mexican gray wolf

Species Survival Plan© 158 v

INTRODUCTION

There are two important documents that are used as guidelines for the management of the Mexican gray wolf SSP©. The first of these is the Mexican Wolf International Studbook.

This studbook is a compilation of the vital records of the entire historic captive population of the Mexican gray wolf subspecies. Included are all the births, deaths, and transfers that have occurred in the history of the subspecies, as well as the family lineages.

Each wolf is assigned its own individual studbook number by the studbook keeper. By utilizing the information contained in the studbook, the captive population can be managed in a scientific manner that allows both genetic and demographic goals for the preservation of the subspecies to be met. The studbook is maintained on a computer program known as SPARKS.

The second document important to the management of the Mexican gray wolf SSP© is the Mexican Wolf Husbandry Manual. It is a set of guidelines based upon the best current scientific knowledge for the maintenance and propagation of the subspecies in captivity.

Contained within it is information on housing and enclosure requirements, behavior and social organization, reproduction, nutrition, and veterinary care and medical concerns.

The guidelines in the husbandry manual benefit the subspecies in a number of ways.

They provide consistency among participating institutions and make it easier to transfer wolves between institutions. Standardized practices allow easier detection of potential health and husbandry problems. Good husbandry allows us to more easily achieve our genetic and demographic goals by providing more efficient and predictable breeding, as well as allowing us to preserve the natural behaviors necessary for wolves that may eventually be reintroduced to the wild.

SSP© Management Group

D. Peter Siminski MWSSP Coordinator and International Studbook Keeper The Living Desert 47-900 Portola Avenue Palm Desert, CA 92260-6156 PH: 760-346-5694, ext. 2103

FX: 760-568-9685

Email: psiminski@livingdesert.org

John Kiseda MWSSP Vice-Coordinator El Paso Zoo 4001 East Paisano Drive El Paso, TX 79905-4223

PH: 915-521-1865

FX: 915-521-1857

Email: kisedajj@elpasotexas.gov

Linda Moore MWSSP Secretary Animal Care Smithsonian National Zoological Park P.O. Box 37012 MRC 5507 Washington, D.C. 20013-7012

PH: 202-633-3210

FX: 202-633-8727

Email: moore@si.edu

Dusty Lombardi MWSSP Treasurer Columbus Zoological Garden P.O. Box 400 (9990 Riverside Drive) Powell, OH 43065-0400

PH: 614-645-3458

FX: 614-645-3465

Email: dusty.lombardi@columbuszoo.org

Susan Lyndaker Lindsey, Ph. D. MWSSP Husbandry and Behavioral Advisor Wild Canid Survival and Research Center P.O. Box 760 Eureka, MO 63025-0760 PH: 636-938-5900 or 6490

FX: 636-938-6490

Email: slindsey@wildcanidcenter.org

John Linehan Stone Memorial Zoo Stoneham, MA mailto:psiminski@livingdesert.org mailto:kisedajj@elpasotexas.gov mailto:moore@si.edu mailto:dusty.lombardi@columbuszoo.org mailto:slindsey@wildcanidcenter.org c/o Zoo New England One Franklin Park Road Boston, MA 02121-3220

PH: 617-989-2054

FX: 617-989-2025

Email: jlinehan@zoonewengland.com

Terry Lincoln Dakota Zoo P.O. Box 711 Bismarck, ND 58502-0711 PH: 701-223-7543, ext. 4

FX: 701-258-8350

Email: director@dakotazoo.org

Rick Janser Albuquerque Biological Park 903 Tenth Street, SW Albuquerque, NM 87102

PH: 505-764-6224

FX: 505-764-6281

Email: rjanser@cabq.gov

Vonceil Harmon Oklahoma City Zoo 2101 NE 50th Street Oklahoma City, OK 73111-7199 PH: 405-424-3344, ext. 232

FX: 405-425-0207

Email: vharmon@okczoo.com

Roberto Wolf Zoológico de Tamatán Calle Ursulo Galván #250 esq. Rí0 Bravo Col. Tamatán 87060 Cd. Victoria, Tamaulipas Mexico

PH: (+52-834) 318 14 92 / 312 00 86

FX: (+52-834) 312 00 86

EM: rwolf@zootamatan.org

USFWS Mexican gray wolf Website mailto:jlinehan@zoonewengland.com mailto:director@dakotazoo.org mailto:rjanser@cabq.gov mailto:vharmon@okczoo.com mailto:rwolf@zootamatan.org

SSP© Advisors

Jorge Servin Presidente del Subcomité Técnico Consultivo Nacional Para la Recuperacion del Lobo Mexicano Universidad Juarez del Estado de Durango Instituto de Ciencias Sociales Privada de Aquiles Serdan y Predio Canoas S/N Col. Los Angeles: C.P. 34000 Durango, Durango Mexico Email: loboservin@yahoo.com

Xóchitl Ramos Magaña Vocal de Manejo en Cautivario de Subcomité Técnico

Consultivo Nacional para le Recuperacion del Lobo Mexicano Zoológico “Alfonso L. Herrera” del Bosque de Chapultepec Dirección General de Zoologicos de la Ciudad de Mexico Av. Chivatito s/n 1a Sección del Bosque de Chapultepec Col. San Miguel Chapultepec 11859 México, D.F.

Email: xramoslupus@hotmail.com

Maggie Dwire USFWS Advisor U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Mexican Wolf Recovery Program 2105 Osuna NE Albuquerque, NM 87113

PH: 505-761-4783

FX: 505-346-2542

Email: maggie_dwire@fws.gov

Susan Lyndaker Lindsey, Ph. D. Husbandry and Behavioral Advisor Wild Canid Survival and Research Center P.O. Box 760 Eureka, MO 63025-0760 PH: 636-938-5900 or 636-938-6490

FX: 636-938-6490

Email: slindsey@wildcanidcenter.org

Cheryl Asa, Ph. D. Reproductive Advisor Saint Louis Zoo One Government Drive Saint Louis, MO 63110-1395

PH: 314-646-4523

FX: 314-646-5534

Email: asa@stlzoo.org

Jacquelyn M. Fallon Education Advisor Wild Canid Survival and Research Center P.O. Box 760 Eureka, MO 63025-0760 mailto:loboservin@yahoo.com mailto:xramoslupus@hotmail.com mailto:maggie_dwire@fws.gov mailto:slindsey@wildcanidcenter.org mailto:asa@stlzoo.org

PH: 636-938-5900 or 636-938-6490

FX: 636-938-6490

Email: jfallon@wildcanidcenter.org

Michael J. Richard, DVM Veterinary Advisor Albuquerque Biological Park 903 Tenth Street, SW Albuquerque, NM 87102-4029

PH: 505-764-6262

FX: 505-764-6275

Email: mrichard@cabq.gov

Carlos Sanchez, DVM Veterinary Advisor Animal Health Smithsonian National Zoological Park P.O. Box 37012 MRC 5502 Washington, D.C. 20013-7012

PH: 202-633-3193

FX: 202-673-4733

Email: sanchezca@si.edu

Edward Spevak, Ph. D. Small Population Management Advisory Group Advisor Saint Louis Zoo One Government Drive St. Louis, MO 63110-1395

PH: 314-646-4706

Email: spevak@stlzoo.org

Linda Munson, D.V.M., Ph. D. Pathology Advisor Dept. VM-PMI, Haring Hall School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis, CA 95616

PH: 916-754-7963

FX: 916-752-3349

Email: lmunson@ucdavis.edu

VACANT Nutrition Advisor

Jack Grisham AZA Canid TAG Chair Saint Louis Zoo One Government Drive St. Louis, MO 63110-1395

PH: 314-646-4629

Email: grisham@stlzoo.org mailto:jfallon@wildcanidcenter.org mailto:mrichard@cabq.gov mailto:sanchezca@si.edu mailto:spevak@stlzoo.org mailto:lmunson@ucdavis.edu mailto:grisham@stlzoo.org

CHAPTER 1:

SPECIES SURVIVAL PLAN (SSP©) FOR THE MEXICAN GRAY WOLF

Mexican Wolf SSP© Mission Statement:

The mission of the Mexican gray wolf Species Survival Plan© is to support the reestablishment of the Mexican wolf in the wild through captive breeding, public education, and research.

Mexican Gray Wolf - Listing and Recovery Planning:

In 1976, the Mexican gray wolf, Canis lupus baileyi, was listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act (ESA), which requires the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to develop and implement recovery plans for the conservation and survival of listed species.

In 1979, the Mexican Wolf Recovery Team was formed and prepared the Mexican Wolf Recovery Plan. This plan was approved in 1982 and contains the following objective:

"To conserve and ensure the survival of C. l. baileyi by maintaining a captive breeding program and reestablishing a viable, self-sustaining population of at least 100 Mexican wolves in the middle to high elevations of a 5,000-square-mile area within the Mexican wolf's historic range."

In 2003, when the USFWS restructured the Endangered Species listing of the gray wolf, the Mexican gray wolf within the Southwestern Gray Wolf Distinct Population Segment was still considered endangered. Also in 2003, the service convened a new Recovery Team to revise the outdated 1982 Recovery Plan. The new plan will contain delisting and downlisting goals. The team is currently on hold and it is uncertain as to when the new plan will be completed.

Under a joint agreement between the United States and Mexico, five Mexican wolves were captured from the wild in Durango and Chihuahua, Mexico between 1977 and 1980.

In 1995, two additional lineages of captive gray wolves were genetically determined to be Mexican gray wolves and added to the captive breeding program.

What is a Species Survival Plan or SSP©?:

The Species Survival Plan (SSP©) began in 1981 as a cooperative population management and conservation program for selected species in zoos and aquariums in North America. Each SSP© manages the breeding of a species in order to maintain a healthy and self-sustaining captive population that is both genetically diverse and demographically stable. SSP©s also participate in a variety of other cooperative conservation activities, such as research, public education, reintroduction and field projects.

The SSP© Master Plan:

An SSP© Master Plan outlines the goals for the population. It designs the "family tree" of a particular captive population in order to achieve maximum genetic diversity and demographic stability. Breeding and other management recommendations are made for each animal with consideration given to the logistics and feasibility of transfers between institutions, as well as maintenance of natural social groupings. Often, Master Plans include recommendations not to breed animals, so as to avoid having the population outgrow the available holding space.

How Species are Selected:

A species must satisfy a number of criteria to be selected for an SSP©. Most SSP© species are endangered or threatened in the wild and have the interest of qualified professionals with time to dedicate toward their conservation. Also, SSP© species are often "flagship species", well-known animals which arouse strong feelings in the public for their preservation and the protection of their habitat.

The Husbandry Manual:

Many SSP©s have developed husbandry manuals, which set guidelines based on the best current scientific knowledge for the diet and care of the species in captivity. With standardized practices, it is easier to detect potential health and husbandry problems. In addition, because the guidelines provide consistency among participating institutions, it is also easier to transfer animals between institutions when necessary.

The Studbook:

Studbooks are fundamental to the successful operation of SSP©s, as each contains the vital records of an entire captive population of a species. With appropriate computer analysis, a studbook enables the species coordinator and management group to develop a Master Plan that contains sound breeding recommendations based on genetics, demographics, and the species biology.

References (Referencias):

Anonymous. AZA Fact Sheet: Species Survival Plan. 1995. American Zoo and Aquarium Association Conservation and Science Office. Betheseda, MD.

D. Peter Siminski and Edward M. Spevak. 2008. Population analysis and breeding plan: Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) Species Survival Plan. 24-25 July 2008. Association of Zoos and Aquariums.

CHAPTER 2:

POPULATION MANAGEMENT

Historical Perspective - Population Lineages:

Five wolves, (four males and one pregnant female) were captured from the wild to form a captive breeding program between 1977 and 1980 by Roy McBride in Durango and Chihuahua, Mexico. These five wolves were then transferred to the U.S. where three (one female and two males) became the founders of a certified captive breeding program for a species that was on the brink of extinction. Known as the McBride lineage, the population had grown to 107 animals by 1995.

In July 1995, two additional lineages of captive Mexican wolves, the Ghost Ranch population in the United States and the Aragon population in Mexico City, were approved for addition to the SSP© breeding program. The Ghost Ranch lineage is derived from two wolves taken from the wild in 1959 and 1961. The Aragon lineage is derived from two wolves originating at the Chapultepec Zoo in the mid 1970s. Although both lineages had been maintained in captivity since at least the 1960s, they were previously uncertified because of uncertainties about their origins. However, genetic investigations concluded that all three lineages were pure Canis lupus baileyi. Findings revealed that the McBride lineage had the lowest level of inbreeding and had retained the most founder alleles, while the Ghost Ranch lineage had a high level of inbreeding and the fewest founder alleles. The study also confirmed the McBride lineage to have only three founders versus the four previously assumed (one of the wild caught males was the offspring of the wild caught female).

Findings from this research recommended that the three lineages be combined to increase the number of founders and to postpone any inbreeding depression. The addition of these two lineages added 4 new founders and 33 individuals (25 Ghost Ranch, 8 Aragon) to the total captive population. [For more information regarding the three lineages of Mexican gray please see Appendix A.]

Genetic Diversity - Carrying Capacity - Generation Time Management:

The overall goal set by the 1994 SSP© Master Plan is to preserve 75% of the gene diversity in captivity for 50 years. The Master Plan projects a need for 240 wolves in captivity to achieve the genetic goals. The calculated 2006 gene diversity of the captive population was 82.41% (the amount of original genetic variability or heterozygosity retained within the population) and the founder genome equivalents was 2.84. The founder genome/population is a small number of individuals, originating from a large population, that form the basis of a new, independent (isolated) population of that species. These are slight increases over the previous year. Additionally, the mean inbreeding coefficient (0.1497) is a slight decrease from the previous years. Inbreeding occurs when two related individuals breed with each other ("consanguineous breeding").

Inbreeding results in an increase of homozygosity "by descent". The probability of becoming homozygous by descent is called the inbreeding coefficient. The closer the common ancestors are to the parents in the pedigree, the higher the inbreeding coefficient, and the higher the proportion of loci at which the offspring will become homozygous by descent. These improvements in the genetic picture of the captive population are primarily the result of careful merging of the three Mexican wolf lineages over the past eight years.

In order to maintain gene diversity, the Master Plan projects a need for a captive carrying capacity of at least 240 wolves. However, the lack of sufficient captive space continues to be of concern for the program, especially considering the carrying capacity does not include wolves surplused for the reestablishment effort. As a means of creating more captive space, the SSP© and its counterpart in Mexico (Subcomite Tecnico Consultivo Nacional para la Recuperacion del Lobo Mexicano) continue to aggressively promote participation by North American Zoos and their like in the captive breeding program.

Another way to maintain or even increase the gene diversity is by increasing the number of founders. However, finding new founders seems unlikely: except for the reintroduced population, the presence of wolves in the wild has not been confirmed for more than fifteen years. Although 81% of the genetic diversity of the population has been retained, it can be increased by managing the captive population better. One management practice is to increase the generation time, the longer the generation time, the smaller the loss of genetic diversity. Semen collection and cryopreservation is one way to increase generation time, assuming artificial insemination techniques are perfected.

Management Strategies:

1. The first priority is to breed individuals of the lowest Mean Kinship (MK) which are under-represented and, therefore, possess the rarest alleles in the population.

2. Among individuals with low MK, the second priority is to breed those individuals whose alleles may be lost soon. Priorities should be determined by the manager's knowledge of an individual's age, health, and/or reproductive condition. In the absence of other information low Kinship Value (KV), printed on the Master Plan report, can be used.

Criteria for Establishing Breeding Pairs:

There are five criteria that are considered in order during the establishment of annual breeding pairs for the Mexican wolf captive population (in order of priority):

1. Mean Kinship Value: Mate individuals with roughly similar MK to avoid combining rare and common alleles in offspring that reduces long term gene diversity.

2. Inbreeding Coefficient: Mate individuals whose offspring will have low inbreeding coefficients (F), for the best probability of viable, healthy offspring.

3. Biology of Individual: Maximize mating success based on the species' biology, including suitable age of individuals, mate choice, social structure, reproductive history, etc.

4. General Logistics: Minimize logistical difficulties of moves (e.g. distance, cost, quarantine).

5. Politics: Maximize interinstitutional harmony and minimize political conflicts.

It has been recommended that special attention be given to the behavioral characteristic of the individual given how much this criterion weighs on the success of the release candidate. Wolves that are potential candidates for release to the wild are evaluated based on a number of behavioral and physiological criteria including genetic makeup, age, reproductive performance, proven parental skills and appropriate social behavior, and aversion to humans.

Rationale for Deciding the Location for SSP© Recommended Pairings:

As the SSP© captive population has matured to carrying capacity, there will be fewer breeding opportunities for the many institutions involved with the holding and exhibition of Mexican wolves. Also the SSP© population is still considered the primary source of Mexican wolves that may be used in future reintroductions, and there will likely be future introductions. For the above situation and the above need, the SSP© seeks to not only minimize the loss of gene diversity in the captive population over time, but also to:

• Optimize the reproductive success and the predictability of success for our recommended pairings.

• Optimally use the limited space within the SSP© institutions.

• Minimize domestication.

• Minimize wolf habituation to human presence.

• Optimize those behavioral characteristics that result in success in reintroduction.

To these ends, it needs to be recognized that the SSP© has a preference for placing recommended breeding pairs in those institutions that have the capacity and flexibility for multigenerational wolf pack management. The SSP© also has a preference for placing breeding pairs in institutions that have off-exhibit breeding and holding, and demonstrated wolf management expertise. The SSP© always seeks to be fair and equitable in offering wolf breeding opportunities to the holding institutions, but with the above goals in mind.

Hand-Rearing:

As a rule wolf pups are only removed for hand-rearing in extraordinary circumstances and with prior approval of the USFWS. The genetic value of the pups will need to greatly outweigh the domesticating influences of hand-rearing. However, when approval has been granted for hand-rearing, see Chapter 9 and Figure 9-B for the recommended protocol.

References (Referencias):

D. Peter Siminski. 1994. 1994 Mexican Wolf SSP© Master Plan. American Zoo and Aquarium Association. Oglebay, WV.

D. Peter Siminski and Edward M. Spevak. 2008. Population analysis and breeding plan:

Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) Species Survival Plan. 24-25 July 2008. Association of Zoos and Aquariums.

CHAPTER 3:

GENERAL BIOLOGY - NATURAL HISTORY - REINTRODUCTION

Population Status:

The Mexican gray wolf (Canis lupus baileyi), or "lobo", is the rarest, southernmost, and most genetically distinct subspecies of the North American gray wolf. The lobo was extirpated from the southwestern United States by the mid 1900s due primarily to an aggressive predator control program implemented by the federal government.

International wolf experts rate recovery of the Mexican gray wolf as the highest priority of gray wolf recovery programs throughout the world. As of 1 January 2007, 291 Mexican gray wolves are in 48 captive facilities in the United States and Mexico, and there are nine packs in a reintroduced population in Arizona and New Mexico.

Natural History:

Wild populations of Mexican gray wolves were exterminated before they were extensively studied; therefore much of their natural history remains to be learned. The average Mexican gray wolf weighs 50-80 lb (25.8-36.24 kg), is 4.5 to 5.5 ft (135-165 cm) in total length (nose to tip of tail), stands 28-32 in (70-80 cm) at the shoulder and has a richly colored coat of buff, gray, rust, and black. They mate sometime between late January to mid March, and have a gestation of 63 days with an average litter size of 4-5 pups. Wolves have complex social behaviors, living in family groups called "packs", the structure of which is maintained by communication through vocalizations, body postures, and scent marking. Wolves play an important role in the ecosystem that is not filled by other predators. Like all gray wolves, lobos evolved as a predator of large hoofed mammals. Their tightly organized group structure enables them to work cooperatively to bring down prey much larger than themselves. However, because the primary prey of the Mexican gray (deer) is smaller than the moose and caribou hunted by northern wolves, wolf pack sizes were probably smaller as well. A typical pack may have been five to six animals consisting of an adult pair and their offspring, with a territory encompassing up to several hundred square miles.

Historic Range - Habitat Preference:

Mexican gray wolves were found in a variety of southwestern habitats; however, they were not low desert dwellers. They preferred mountain woodlands, probably because of the favorable combination of cover, water, and available prey. The lobo inhabited wooded foothills, mountains, and riparian corridors from central Mexico through southeastern Arizona, southern New Mexico and western Texas (see Appendix B and Figure 3-A).

Reasons for Decline:

In the early 1900s high cattle stocking rates coupled with overhunting of deer and elk by humans, resulted in many wolves preying on livestock. This led to intensive efforts to eradicate wolves in the United States. Wolves were shot, trapped, and poisoned by both private individuals and government agents. By the mid-1900s, Mexican gray wolves had been effectively eliminated from the United States, and Mexican populations were severely reduced. Over the next 20 years dispersing wolves from Mexico were occasionally caught and killed in the U.S. There have been no confirmed reports of naturally occurring Mexican gray wolves in the U.S. since 1970, and no confirmed reports in Mexico since 1980.

Reintroduction Objectives (as quoted from the 1982 Mexican Wolf Recovery Plan):

1. Establish a captive population of 240 animals with at least 17 breeding pairs.

2. Reestablish a wild population of at least 100 animals within the wolf’s historic range.

Reintroduction Area:

Wolf reintroduction has occurred in one area within the subspecies' historic range. The Blue Range Wolf Recovery Area (see Figure 3-A) includes the Apache and Gila National Forests in eastern Arizona and western New Mexico [(7,000 mi2); (18,200 km2)], and also the White Mountain Apache Tribe lands on the Fort Apache Indian Reservation [( 2,500mi2) (6,475km2)]. (See also Figure 3-B).

The Reintroduction Plan - Soft Release:

The Mexican gray wolf reintroduction project plan is built upon the lessons learned from previous predator reintroduction programs such as the red wolf in North Carolina and Tennessee and the gray wolf in the Northern Rocky Mountains. The plan was to release about 15 pairs or family groups over a period of five years into the Blue Range Wolf Recovery Area. The USFWS predicted that it will take approximately 9 years to establish a self-sustaining population of 100 wolves through release of captive animals and natural reproduction in the wild. Although releases started in 1998, this goal has yet to be realized.

Initially, biologists used a "soft release" approach, which entails holding the wolves in acclimation pens for up to several months before the release. Wolves released into the primary recovery zone in Arizona were allowed to disperse into the secondary recovery zone in New Mexico.

The Nonessential Experimental Population Rule:

The USFWS and cooperating agencies use a flexible "adaptive management" approach based on careful monitoring and research to evaluate and make decisions about recovery actions. The reintroduction plan allows for wolves to be removed or relocated when conflicts occur with livestock or humans. Selective removal of individuals or packs that habitually prey on livestock increases the potential for wolf recovery to succeed because it encourages a wolf population that focuses on native prey and builds a tolerance for coexistence among livestock producers. Reintroduced Mexican gray wolves are designated as nonessential experimental population under the Endangered Species Act, which allows for greater management flexibility than would be possible if wolves were classified as fully endangered. The rule delineates the population boundary, provides guidance for wildlife managers on capturing, monitoring, and translocating wolves, and defines the circumstances in which a citizen can legally harass or kill a wolf.

Criteria for Selecting Release Candidates:

Personnel working with Mexican gray wolves must not attempt to modify the animals’ behavior. As it is difficult to identify which wolves will ultimately be selected for release, avoidance of socialization or familiarization of the wolves with humans is fundamental.

Remote feeding is preferred for release candidates and should be employed whenever possible. Feed, give access to the food, and then leave the area. Wolves that are potential candidates for release to the wild are evaluated based on a number of behavioral and physiological criteria including genetic makeup, age, reproductive performance, proven parental skills and appropriate social behavior, and aversion to humans.

For current information on field activities, visit:

http://www.fws.gov/southwest/es/mexicanwolf Additional information is available through the Arizona Game and Fish Department’s Mexican gray wolf website:

http://www.azgfd.gov/w_c/es/wolf_reintroduction.shtml Past updates may be viewed on either website, or interested parties may sign up to receive updates electronically by visiting:

http://www.azgfd.gov/signup

References (Referencias)/Suggested Readings:

Anonymous. 1997. Mexican Gray Wolf: Challenge in the Southwest. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Albuquerque, NM.

Kent Newton. 1995. Mexican Wolf Husbandry Manual. Mexican Wolf SSP Management Group.

1996. The Mexican Wolf: Natural History and Recovery Efforts. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Albuquerque, NM.

D. Peter Siminski and Edward M. Spevak. 2008. Population analysis and breeding plan:

Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) Species Survival Plan. 24-25 July 2008. Association of Zoos and Aquariums.

http://www.azgfd.gov/w_c/es/wolf_reintroduction.shtml http://www.azgfd.gov/signup

Figure 3-A Maps of the historic range and the recovery zones of Mexican gray wolf

EVENT DATE

Canis lupus baileyi listed as an endangered species. 1976 C. l. baileyi listed as extinct in the wild. 1980 First captive-born Mexican gray wolves released into the wild.

First pups born in the wild. 2001 First wild pairings formed. 2003

Figure 3-B Important dates in Mexican gray wolf history.

CHAPTER 4:

BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS

Optimal Social Groupings:

Canid social behavior has been well documented over the years. Like most canids, the Mexican gray wolf shows a strong affinity to an organized social arrangement. This is normally exhibited in the form of a family group consisting of a dominant breeding pair and their offspring from current or previous litters, or both. Breeding pairs with young-of-the-year or two consecutive litters have proven to be cohesive, advantageous groupings and represent what would be considered an optimal social grouping. It must be cautioned that the variables affecting stress (e.g., exhibit design, management practices, human presence, environmental factors, etc.) are likely to have a more critical influence on a larger multi-generational pack than a same sex, smaller group. However, the benefits of a multi-generational pack are far reaching. The primary litter has the benefit of experiencing and assisting with the growth and development of the secondary litter. The secondary litter likewise can greatly benefit from all aspects of group social interaction (including but not limited to aunting behavior, play, aggression, dominance, submission, vocal communication, and hunting and feeding activities). Many possible combinations of social pairings/groupings exist and may be suitable based on the individual animals, the situation, and on the approval of the Mexican Wolf SSP© Management Committee. For example:

1. adult breeding pair

2. adult breeding pair with offspring from 0 - 1.5 years of age

3. litter mates up to 1.5 years of age

4. same sex packs of either related or unrelated individuals

With regards to same sex packs, there are many factors which should be considered when attempting to form such social groupings. Introductions should occur under close supervision in large areas where each animal has the ability to retreat if feeling threatened. A number of steps can be taken to help encourage the successful formation of same sex packs. These include:

• Providing multiple feed, water, and resting sites so they can not be monopolized.

• Open feeding areas so that all animals feel secure enough to feed.

• Insuring that all areas are open during an introduction (indoors, outdoors) in a manner that provides no opportunity for an animal to be cornered.

• Eliminating bones and raw meat enrichment during the introduction period.

Lock downs and separations serve only to accentuate strife between pack members. If the situation is bad enough that separation is deemed necessary, do not try to put them back together again until well out of the breeding season.

In same sex female packs it is very difficult to form unrelated groups. Female pack formation seems to occur more smoothly out of breeding season with siblings or family pack members that have not previously been paired with adult males. It is very important that the pack members be of similar age groups. No matter how long a female pack has been housed together, there may still be aggression problems during the breeding season.

The formation of same sex male packs is most successful if all wolves arrive at the same time and are introduced to neutral ground. They should always be introduced outside of breeding season, usually in the early fall. Age composition is important among males as well. One older male with the rest of similar age, but no more than two years younger, seems to work best. There has also been success in mixing subordinate males from large family packs into mixed-age same-sex groups.

Animal Introductions and Separations:

Although Mexican wolf introductions are generally uneventful, interactions should be closely monitored for the first few days to get a good idea of compatibility. If possible, giving the animals visual and olfactory contact through a wire fence barrier for a period of time prior to physical access is recommended. Although very few pairs have not been successfully introduced, there have been a few reports in both Mexican and red wolves of a resident wolf reacting to a newly introduced wolf as though it were intruding on an established territory. In addition, there have been reports of females in this scenario dominating an introduced male, which may have resulted in minimizing the chance for successful breeding. Dominance during introductions may be minimized by holding the resident animal in an adjacent holding area and allowing the newly introduced animal access to the enclosure to become familiar with its new surrounding. (For a representation of basic wolf behaviors, see Figures 4-A, 4-B, 4-C, 4-D and 4-E.)

The effects of removal of adults or pups from their parents or separation of adults or adult pairs are highly variable. There have been reports of increased vocalization, pacing, or lack of appetite when well-bonded pairs have been separated and held apart during the breeding season. Other reports have described similar behavior when females have lost a litter or an individual has lost a mate.

Stress:

A key factor in encouraging wolves to breed in captivity is the provision of surroundings in which they feel comfortable and secure. The animals should not be unduly disturbed through the breeding season, whelping, and pup rearing. There should be no major changes in the routine to which the animals have become accustomed. If Mexican gray wolves are managed as "wild" animals, the chances of having successful propagation can be enhanced by providing them with a predictable routine and as much seclusion and privacy as practical. It is also important to keep stress levels at a minimum at all times, as it has been observed that animals that have been stressed throughout the year may not breed during the season.

The trained observer can assess stress levels of wolves that are not afforded sufficient privacy or security. Signs of stress may include: pacing, spinning or twirling, increase in aggression or submission, overgrooming, excessive licking or chewing, diarrhea, hair loss, disease, decreased appetite and/or weight loss, reproductive failure, or maternal neglect. All efforts should be made to allow the animals to exhibit natural behaviors and to restrict human-animal interaction.

Reproduction:

Mating:

Under no circumstances are "uncertified" wolves to mate with "certified" Mexican gray wolves in the SSP© as indicated by the records of the studbook keeper, unless specifically directed in writing by recovery program administrators for identified scientific purposes that aid in the recovery of the species. Mating of certified wolves shall occur only with approval of the SSP© Management Group and the USFWS or SEMARNAT.

Mexican grays are monestrous with mating taking place from the last week of January through April 15th. Gestation is 60-63 days. Average litter size is 4-5 pups with parturition taking place in April or May. Until safe, reliable and reversible contraception has been demonstrated in this species the recommended means of mating prevention remains temporary separation during the relatively short period that the female would be in estrus. These dates are generally from late January through March.

Assisted reproduction and contraception are discussed later in this chapter.

Physical Characteristics & Determining Breeding Status:

The male wolf's testes regress in the spring and are quite reduced through the summer.

The testes will begin to develop again in the late fall, as indicated by a distinct enlargement of the scrotum and a general loss of hair from the scrotal area. The breeding status of the female is generally not as easily detected. During the short period the female is in proestrus and estrus, depending on the individual, there may or may not be a detectable enlargement of the nipples and/or a detectable discharge including blood from the vulva area. It should be noted that vaginal discharge during pregnancy or around the time of parturition may be normal; however, discharge after the season or at any other time of the year may potentially indicate that the female has a uterine or bladder infection. As with other canids, uterine infections can be fatal but can be effectively treated if detected early. Most healthy female wolves will at least appear to undergo estrus during their first breeding season at about nine months of age. Although female wolves have successfully bred during their first "season" it is generally accepted that female wolves are not reproductively mature until their second season at approximately twenty-one months of age. Male captive-bred wolves have successfully bred during their second breeding season at approximately twenty-two months of age, and it is generally accepted that this is the age at which they first become reproductively viable. However, there is at least one published record of a generic gray yearling reproducing and the Mexican Wolf SSP© reproductive study has documented that a cross lineage Mexican gray wolf at the Wild Canid Center produced viable semen at less than one year of age.

Good record keeping, and backdating from prior whelping dates may aid the keeper in determining the period in which the animal is most likely to be in breeding status.

Occasionally, determination of a female's breeding status can be aided by noting changes in the behavior of the male toward the female. Prior to copulation the male often becomes increasingly more interested in the female's urine and licking or sniffing her anogenital area.

Denning:

Mexican gray wolf females may excavate underground dens or make shallow depression dens or digs. In captivity it is important to offer them several options for denning;

whether above or below ground, man-made structures or dirt mounds in which to dig.

Facilities have successfully utilized:

• Man made, wooden den boxes

• Large mounds the wolves have excavated

• Underground den constructed of two sections of polyethylene pipe and a polyethylene manhole

The animal's seclusion should be respected by the keeper and such areas should be entered only in an emergency or for an occasional inspection. During whelping season, if a female disappears, attempt to establish her location from outside the enclosure. The alpha male's behavior may help locate her den site; he will generally spend a lot of time in close proximity to the den. If it appears that the female is denned up, all personnel access should be restricted. Human presence at this critical time could cause animal aggression towards the employee, den/pup abandonment, and/or infanticide with or without consumption.

Offspring:

Parent-raised offspring are preferred by this program. At times this approach to husbandry may be emotionally difficult for animal care staff that recognizes that they could do more to aid the survival of individual pups. However, one must continually bear in mind that the overall objective of the program is not to simply produce wolves but to produce wolves that can withstand the rigors of nature once reintroduced to the wild.

Only in this way will the species be able to continue a natural existence. In the interest of reducing interference with "natural selection" and to avoid conflicts with the objective of producing "wild wolves", it is necessary to avoid hand-rearing or taking other extraordinary measures to increase survival rates unless such care is absolutely necessary for the survival of the species and approved by the USFWS Mexican Wolf Recovery Coordinator. (If you have approval for hand-rearing, guidelines can be found in Figure 9- B). Our concerns are that regularly taking such extreme measures may result in animals that are attuned to humans or result in the survival of undetected "substandard" animals that do not represent the wild species and would not survive once reintroduced to the wild. Although interference and handling is not recommended, the confinement of captivity tends to increase exposure of the animals to parasites and communicable disease; therefore, some veterinary care of the very young is required to achieve litter survival rates that would be expected in the wild. The care involves treatments to reduce parasite infestations and inoculations to prevent disease.

Whenever possible, cross-fostering of pups would be preferred to pulling pups for hand-rearing. In cross-fostering, pups would be placed with those being cared for by a competent proven female at the same institution or another institution with a suitable match. Consultation with and approval from the USFWS Mexican Wolf Recovery Coordinator and MWSSP Coordinator are required as with hand-rearing.

Parental Care:

In general, adult Mexican gray wolves provide excellent parental care. Mexican gray wolves have successfully whelped in man-made dens or in a place of their own choosing such as a depression den or under a bush. Females may not allow the male access to the den when occupied by the pups. At approximately 4-6 weeks of age when the pups start venturing away from the den, the male and other pack members begin to take a more active role in their care by feeding, guarding, and socializing with the pups.

There is always concern that human handling of young animals may disturb their parents to the point that the young may be jeopardized. In most situations adults will provide for their litter even after required human intervention; however, afterwards they may move the pups to another location. Cautious, limited handling can occur under specialized circumstances. If this becomes necessary, care should be taken to limit the transfer of human scent to the pups by wearing surgical gloves, and not holding the pups up against your clothes/body.

Assisted Reproduction:

If small, isolated populations are to be managed genetically, basic assisted reproductive techniques such as artificial insemination (AI) can be an important substitute for translocating animals. Additionally, since wolves are monogamous and form long-term pair bonds in the wild, separating established pairs for genetic re-pairing can be stressful to the animals, which may impact reproductive success. Shipment itself has been shown to have negative effects on reproductive capacity in domestic species such as cows and sheep, and it might be expected to have even more extensive consequences in wild species. AI could be used to accomplish genetic pairings without the need for transfer.

Semen collection techniques for wolves are well-established, but handling and cryopreservation techniques require further development. Sperm survive freezing, but percentages are low and survival is short compared to other species. Semen has been banked for many male Mexican gray wolves, but post-thaw sample quality has not yet been verified by successful AI. Recent advances in semen cryopreservation methodology for domestic dogs should continue to be evaluated with wolf semen.

Until recently it was not possible to cryopreserve female gametes (oocytes), but advances with vitrification (freeze-drying) show promise for Mexican gray wolves. Although the techniques that will be required for the thawed oocytes to develop have not been completely successful, several labs around the world are concentrating solely on these procedures for application to domestic dog oocytes. Meanwhile, genes from individual genetically valuable Mexican gray females can be preserved in anticipation of future use.

Unfortunately, transfer of assisted reproduction techniques to canids, including domestic dogs, has proven more difficult than for most other species. Recent successes include induction of timed estrus and ovulation for AI in generic gray wolves and non-surgical AI in both generic gray and Mexican gray wolves (Asa et al. 2006). More advanced methods such as embryo transfer and in-vitro fertilization are likewise more difficult than in other species and require even more handling and manipulation than does AI, so are not yet practical for wolves. Fortunately, most applications of assisted reproduction in Mexican gray wolves can be accomplished with AI. For other methods to become part of recovery or management programs for wolves or other canids, considerable research and development are necessary.

Endocrine monitoring of hormonal changes associated with estrus and ovulation using fecal hormone assays can help diagnose reasons for reproductive failure. Similarly, fecal samples can be analyzed for cortisol as a possible indicator of stress. However, hormonal pregnancy diagnosis requires a blood sample for analysis of relaxin, the only hormone that distinguishes pregnancy from pseudopregnancy in canids.