Attachment J.10-Nature Tourism Rapid Assesment.pdf

Colombia Tropical Forest and Biodiversity Analysis 2019

This publication was produced upon request of the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared independently by the Consulting and Advisory Services Program for Colombia executed by Olgoonik Technical Services LLC and completed in July 2019.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This analysis was co-ordinated by María Elfi Chaves, Team leader. Mrs Chaves led a team of experts that include Carlos Sarmiento, Natural resource governance and environmental policy and management specialist, Jessica Zapata, Data analysis and mapping specialist, and Mauricio Mira, Economic growth and livelihood specialist.

The team of experts formally met or held discussions with over 250 stakeholders, including key individuals inside the Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Mines and Energy, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, National Planning Department, Rural Development Agency, the Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology, and Environmental Studies, National Natural Parks, the Alexander von Humboldt Biological Resources Research Institute, the Amazon Institute of Scientific Research SINCHI, the Regional Environmental Authorities and with the Association of Regional Autonomous Corporations and Regional Corporations of Sustainable Development.

Meetings were also held with members of leading civil society organizations like the National Indigenous Organization of Colombia, Fondo para la Acción Ambiental y la Niñez, Patrimonio Natural Fondo para la Biodiversidad y Áreas Protegidas, World Wildlife Fund Colombia, the Nature Conservancy, Fundación Tropenbos and Fundación para la Conservación y el Desarrollo Sostenible. Over 50 local producers associations, community based organizations, and local environmental organizations participated in five local level consultation exercises during field visits to Caquetá, Nariño, Guaviare, Norte de Santander and Bajo Cauca. The purpose of these meetings was to understand what are the main threats for biodiversity and forests in Colombia, identify threat mitigation strategies and provide recommendations to

USAID.

This Review was made possible by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of USAID or the United States Government.

LIST OF ACRONYMS

ACT Amazon Conservation Team ACTO Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization ANLA National Environmental Licensing Authority ASOCARS Association of Regional Autonomous Corporations and Regional Corporations of Sustainable Development CAR Regional Autonomous Environmental Authorities CDCS Country Development Cooperation Strategy CEPF Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund CESU National Council of Higher Education CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CONALDEF National Council against Deforestation and other related Environmental Crimes CONPES National Council on Economic and Social Policies CR Critically Endangered DANE National Statistics Department DCS Districts for Soil Conservation DNP National Planning Department DO Development Objective ECC Complementary Conservation Strategy EN Endangered ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization FAA Foreign Assistance Act FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FARC Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia FCDS Conservation and Sustainable Development Foundation FEDEPALMA National Federation of Oil Palm growers FONAM National Environmental Fund GBIF Global Biodiversity Information Facility GBO Green Business Office GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environmental Facility GG Green Growth GGP Green Growth Policy GHG Green House Gases GIBSE Integrated management of biodiversity and its ecosystem services GoC Government of Colombia IAvH Alexander von Humboldt Biological Resources Research Institute IBA Important Bird and Biodiversity Area ICCA Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas ICONTEC Colombian Institute of regulations and certification IDEAM Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental Studies Institute IIAP John von Neumann Pacific Environmental Research Institute

INDERENA National Institute for Natural Renewable Resources and Environment IR Intermediate Result ITCZ Intertropical Confluence Zone INVEMAR Jose Benito Vives de Andréis Marine and Coastal Research Institute IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature KfW Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau MASL Meters Above Sea Level NDP National Development Plan NGO Non Governmental Organization NTFP Non-Timber Forest Products OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development OECMS Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures ONIC National Indigenous Organization of Colombia PA - SINAP National Protected Areas System Action Plan PAT Triennial Action Plan (regional environmental authorities) PBOT Territorial Ordaining Basic Plan (small municipalities) PDET Development Plan with Territorial Focus PES Payment for Environmental Services PGAR Regional environmental management plan (regional environmental authorities) PNGIBSE National Policy for the Integrated Management of Biodiversity and its Ecosystem Services PNNC Colombian National Natural Parks POT Territorial Ordaining Plan (large municipalities) RAISG Amazon Georeferenced Information Network REDD Reduction of Emissions by Deforestation and Degradation RNSC Natural Reserves of Civil Society RUNAP Protected Areas National Registration Base SDO Sustainable Development Objectives SGP GEF Small Grants Programme SIAC Colombian Environmental Information System SIB Biodiversity Information System SIDAP Department Protected Areas System SIMCI Integrated Illicit Crop Monitoring System SINA National Environmental System SINAP National Protected Areas System SIRAP Regional Protected Areas System TEEB The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity TSS Socio-ecological Transitions to Sustainability UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime UPRA Rural Agricultural and cattle ranching Planning Unit VU Vulnerable WB World Bank

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1

Colombia boasts a diverse geography, a variety of landscapes and ecosystems, and vast 2 ecosystem goods and services. It hosts close to ten percent of the planet’s biodiversity and 3 ranks second among the countries containing the greatest biodiversity in the world. 4 Colombia ranks seventh in the world in terms of area covered by tropical forests and in the 5 top five countries with the highest number of vertebrate, butterfly, and plant species. The 6 combination of three unique biogeographic characteristics explains its megadiversity. 7

- Colombia’s geographic location places it in the Inter tropical Confluence Zone (ITCZ). 9 The ITZC has two general characteristics that correlate with high biodiversity: high rainfall 10 and year-round warm temperatures. In fact, all ten of the most megadiverse countries are 11 located in this zone. 12

- Colombia’s rugged topography divides the country into five distinct biogeographical 14 regions, each with numerous subdivisions. Over geological time the three Andean mountain 15 ranges and the Baudó range located in Chocó have been both barriers and corridors for the 16 distribution of species. This has resulted in speciation, endemism, and altitudinal and 17 latitudinal differences in ecosystems, species, and genetic richness throughout and between 18 the five regions. 19

- Colombia´s location on the northern corner of South America served as a crossroad for 21 migrating species. 22 However, in the last three decades, nearly 10 percent of forests have been lost. 24 Deforestation is the main driver threatening this ecosystem. It is estimated that the country 25 loses 220,000 hectares of forest per year. The main driver of biodiversity loss and 26 transformation of tropical forests is the country’s environmentally unsustainable economic 27 development model. The high dependency on non-renewable resources poses an increasing 28 threat to Colombia’s biodiversity and ecosystem services. This is the result of the economic 29 drive of extractive industries (both regulated and illegal), the expansion of the agricultural 30 frontier (through deforestation), infrastructure development, and lack of land use planning 31 and zoning for environmental sustainability and climate change adaptation. Furthermore, 32 the value of biodiversity and ecosystem services has not been established as assets in the 33 country. Consequently, the loss of biodiversity or ecosystem services does not affect 34 balance and accounting and apparently has no impact on the country’s development. 35 Threats to biodiversity have been classified into two large groups. The first is the loss or 37 replacement of natural coverage by deforestation and transformation caused by 38 infrastructure and agricultural frontier expansion, and the (legal and illegal) exploitation of 39 hydrocarbons and other mineral resources One, is the illegal grabbing of lands located 40 outside and inside protected areas. The second, ecosystem degradation, results in the loss or 41 weakening of the ecological functions caused by the introduction of exotic and invasive 42 species, water and air contamination, extraction of species, and direct use beyond carrying 43 capacity. 44

Although these unsustainable models already existed prior to the signing of the peace 46 agreement, the post-conflict seems to be exacerbating environmental problems. In fact, the 47 post-conflict phase shows an increase in annual deforestation rates in areas where the 48 FARC had a presence like the jungles of Caquetá/Putumayo and in Las Hermosas canyon 49 or Sumapaz in high mountain regions. 50 Biodiversity conservation and sustainability are promoted or restricted by policies, 52 programs, and actions that are defined and implemented at different levels of government 53 and by different actors. Policy options can build on a strong track record of reforms, but 54 implementation and enforceability remain a challenge. 55 The Constitution of 1991 was labeled the “Green Constitution”, partly due to the 57 recognition of the right to a healthy environment (Art. 79). In turn, Law 99 of 1993 58 introduced the obligation to implement protection mechanisms for ecosystems such as 59 páramos, subpáramos, springs, and aquifer recharge zones. However, further efforts are 60 needed to improve environmental health monitoring, specifically regarding water and 61 energy use, chemical disposal from oil and mining and economic valuation for policy- 62 making. The main challenge is to make the system fully operational and to link it more 63 closely with policy-making, among others, through strengthening links between 64 environmental, health and economic information. The recognition of the close relationship 65 between the proper functioning of ecosystems and the well-being of communities (rural and 66 urban) has led the courts to consider that nature can be subject to rights in of itself. This has 67 led to the appointment of guardians, whether communities or public institutions and 68 establishing obligations to prevent, stop, or reverse the environmental deterioration. 69 However, the lack of political weight, virtually inexistent continuity of policies and the 70 overall loss of direction of the public environmental sector can be traced to structural 71 design flaws. Due to the lack of leadership and consistently applied sustainable 72 development policies, environmental issues have lost political relevance. 73 The lack of harmonized long term land use planning and zoning instruments and inter- 75 sectoral conservation agreements in the territory has led to unsustainable management of 76 the land, its biodiversity and ecosystem services, as well as increasing the vulnerability of 77 communities to climate change and its derived environmental risks. The existence of 78 various planning and zoning instruments that often overlap generates conflicts between 79 institutions and land use and environmental conflict. This is due to the overlapping 80 jurisdictions and lack of clarity of which regulations are applicable. The lack of harmonized 81 long term land use planning and zoning instruments and inter-sectorial conservation 82 agreements in the territory has led to unsustainable management of the land, its biodiversity 83 and ecosystem services, as well as increasing the vulnerability of communities to climate 84 change and its derived environmental risks. The near absence of adequate valuation 85 methods to determine the economic, social, and environmental importance of biodiversity 86 undermines conservation and sustainability. This lack of economic valuation capability, 87 coupled with the historical bias for short-term extractive development models also threaten 88 biodiversity. 89

For decades, a lack of effective state presence in some of Colombia’s most biodiverse areas 91 allowed illegal armed groups to take refuge in these ungoverned spaces. While this 92 continues to be the case, the prospect of peace brings renewed hope for effective state 93 presence, including environmental governance, in these areas. Reasserting state presence in 94 environmentally important areas and ensuring improved natural resource management will 95 take center stage in the years following the 2016 Peace Accord. 96 Recommendations 98 In order to fully implement this integrated management of biodiversity and its ecosystem 100 services approach, SINA needs to be strengthened in several aspects. The first is that the 101 National Environmental Council, needs to be reorganized so it can effectively exercise the 102 role it was created for, the inclusion of environmental issues cross-cutting other sectors 103 public policies, instruments, and programs. 104 The second is that the Ministry of the Environment, as leader of SINA, needs institutional 106 stability and an increase of public financial resources to fulfill its role and facilitate the real 107 implementation of the environmental system at the local and regional level. 108 The National Protected Areas System (SINAP) is of particular relevance for biodiversity 110 conservation, as it encompasses 26,1% of the continental area of Colombia and constitutes 111 the main strategy for protection and conservation of the country’s megadiversity. The areas 112 that need strengthening are the increase of financial resources from the public budget; 113 Interinstitutional coordination, mainly between CAR and National Parks in joint action 114 plans and synergic investment of resources; Promotion and support to community and 115 individual conservation efforts. 116 Colombia´s unique mega biodiversity represents a very good opportunity for positioning 118 the country in specialized and differentiated markets with the goods and services derived 119 from it. One of the first steps in this direction is to finish the national forests inventory and 120 calculate its value using the existing tools. This forest inventory would be the basis for the 121 design and establishment of the National Forest Service that would coordinate and promote 122 the sustainable use (timber and non timber products) and climate-smart management of the 123 Colombian forests, specially those in national lands (Forest Reserves of Law 2nd of 1959) 124 and in Afro Colombian and indigenous territories 125 Environmental crimes in Colombia need to be addressed in a more systematic, effective 127 way by an Environmental and related Crimes Unit in the Attorney General’s Office that has 128 the support from the environmental authorities (ministry of the environment, CAR and 129 National Parks), police and army. The establishment of such a unit implies the revision of 130 the legal framework related to environmental and related crimes and the adjustment of 131 armed forces roles and responsibilities in law enforcement. 132 In order to contribute to the Colombian conservation and sustainable use goals, USAID 134 could include in the 2019 – 2024 CDCS the following actions 135

Design and implement DO, programs and activities with a landscape perspective. This 137 includes strengthening USAID’s capacity to analyze territorial contexts, through the 138 establishment of alliances and information sharing with SINA’s research institutes and 139 other NGOs, to efficiently monitor shifting territorial dynamics. Through territorial 140 analyses, USAID will be able to plan and monitoring the impact of programs the actions 141 and contribute to forest and biodiversity conservation. With access to this information, an 142 internal USAID planning team could: i) identify high priority and/or strategic areas of 143 intervention where, additionally to contributing to the specific development objectives 144 defined in the CDCS, programs could promote the establishment of innovative and 145 biodiversity-friendly productive systems and activities. ii) Before providing support for the 146 consolidation of a tertiary road, the USAID could consider analyzing which of the existing 147 tertiary roads should be closed, which ones USAID should not invest in and which are 148 strategic from the development of the innovative and biodiversity-friendly production 149 systems and activities. iii) Define which programs will be implemented in each prioritized 150 area as one articulated, coordinated and synergic program. Coordination with local/regional 151 processes will be critical to ensure the long-term sustainability of USAID´s interventions a 152 program´s end activities end. Of particular importance is that both representatives of the 153 internal planning team and operators participate in local/regional planning and management 154 groups that usually exist related to regional and or local protected areas systems. 155 In the development of the first thematic line of the 2019 – 2024 CDCS, Colombian society 157 as a whole, USAID could implement a capacity building program with local community- 158 based organizations. Such a program could focus on environmental and climate-related 159 issues, with special attention to ecosystem services, including biodiversity, conservation, 160 sustainable use and ecosystem-based adaptation to climate change. Also in this thematic 161 line, the recommendation to USAID is two-fold: i) promote the establishment of savings 162 funds and revolving funds for beneficiary organizations; ii) Promote together with the 163 financial sector (second tier banks, commercial banks, microfinance institutions, and 164 cooperatives) the development of financial products and services aimed at fostering 165 sustainable and climatically intelligent investments from different economic sectors. It is 166 especially important to contribute to the financial education of communities with 167 livelihoods that depend heavily on ecosystems and their services, in a way that promotes 168 responsible access to financing for the sustainable development of local communities. 169 In thematic line 2 – Accountable and functional governance, USAID could promote and co- 171 fund SINA´s revision process at the national level, while at the regional level it could 172 analyze SINA´s functioning in at least five of USAID´s areas of intervention. This could 173 inform the national level revision of the SINA. 174 Also included in this thematic line is to enhance forest governance and sustainable use by: 176

• Providing assistance for completing the National Forest Inventory (IFN). This effort is 178 led by IDEAM with support from other SINA research institutes, universities, and regional 179 environmental authorities. 180

• Promoting and supporting the valuation of forest resources and their incorporation in 182 national accounts. 183

• Carry out a feasibility study for the establishment of a National Forest Service, in charge 185 of the sustainable management, restoration, use of forests (timber and non-timber products) 186 and climate change mitigation and adaptation related measures implementation in the 187 country. 188

• Promoting and supporting the regional forest inventory that has been carried out by 190 regional environmental authorities and research institutes. 191 The Mission could consider supporting the creation of a permanent Environmental and 193 Related Crimes Unit inside the Attorney General’s Office. This unit would enable the 194 National Council to fight environmental crimes. Support for the creation of this unit 195 includes e a review of the legal framework related to environmental crime and assesses the 196 jurisdiction of the armed forces’ role in law enforcement. This analysis should also include 197 secure whistle-blowing mechanisms that facilitate the identification of the crimes in real 198 time and rapid response. 199 Recommendations in thematic line 3 – Inclusive, innovative and sustainable economic 201 growth include: 202 USAID support to the ME’s actions and strategies at the national level to achieve the green 204 growth policy goals adopted by the 2018-2022 NDP. This would effectively contribute to 205 consolidating Colombia’s green economic, financial, and markets instruments and 206 mechanism required to facilitate the transition to a more environmentally sustainable driven 207 economy. 208 Strengthen regional environmental authorities capacities to implement these instruments 210 and mechanisms with local communities and organizations. 211

I. INTRODUCTION 215

1.1 Purpose 216

The following analysis of Colombia’s tropical forest and biodiversity complies with 217 Sections 118 and 119 of the Foreign Assistance Act (FAA) and Automated Directives 218 System (ADS) guidelines. It describes the current conservation status of tropical forests and 219 biodiversity in Colombia and exposure to critical threats. Additionally, this analysis serves 220 to: 221

i. identify necessary actions to conserve tropical forests and biodiversity; and, 223

ii. develop recommendations that will guide the Mission in determining the extent to 224 which the 2019-2024 Colombia Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS) 225 contributes to tropical forest and biodiversity conservation needs. 226

Chapter 1 contains an introduction. Chapters 2 and 3 briefly depict Colombia’s social, 227 geological and hydrological aspects and describe its biodiversity and the status of 228 conservation at three levels (ecosystems, species and genetic diversity). Chapter 4 analyses 229 the value and economic potential of biodiversity and forests. Chapter 5 summarizes the 230 country´s biodiversity legal framework. Chapter 6 identifies threats to biodiversity and their 231 enabling drivers. Chapter 7 “Actions necessary to conserve and sustainably use 232 biodiversity”; Chapter 8 “Extent to which the Mission meet actions identified”; and, 233 Chapter 9 “Recommendations” are the main chapters present and overarching analysis on 234 the issues affecting biodiversity. 235

1.2 Brief Description of the USAID Program 236

Negotiations between the Government of Colombia (GOC) and the Revolutionary Armed 237 Forces of Colombia (FARC) took place at the time when the 2014-2018 CDCS “A Path to 238 Peace” was being formulated. USAID’s 2014-2018 CDCS describes the USG’s support for 239 Colombia to transition out of conflict and its support for the implementation of an 240 agreement. In other words, the Mission’s goal was a “Colombia more capable of 241 successfully implementing a sustainable and inclusive peace”. The CDCS indicates that 242 progress toward this goal was to be achieved through four development objectives: (1) 243 Effective presence of democratic institutions and processes in targeted areas; (2) 244 Reconciliation advanced among victims, ex-combatants and other citizens; (3) Improved 245 conditions for inclusive, rural economic growth; and (4) Environmental resiliency and low- 246 emissions development strengthened. 247 The 2014 Colombia Tropical Forest and Biodiversity Analysis reflected the sentiment prior 249 to the peace accords: “how would a peace accord affect spatial planning and land use” 250 (Gomez et al., 2014). The authors went on to add “the CDCS should support the design and 251 implementation of alternative and sustainable production systems that generate economic 252 benefits for local communities, while having minimum negative impacts on biodiversity 253 and ecosystem services” (Gomez et al., 2014). 254

For decades, a lack of effective state presence in some of Colombia’s most biodiverse areas 256 allowed illegal armed groups to take refuge in these ungoverned spaces. While this 257 continues to be the case, the prospect of peace brings renewed hope for effective state 258 presence, including environmental governance, in these areas. Reasserting state presence in 259 environmentally important areas and ensuring improved natural resource management will 260 take center stage in the years following the 2016 Peace Accord. 261 The 2019-2024 CDCS will likely focus on three areas: 263

i. Colombian society as a whole aims to strengthen and helps to reconstruct social 265 structures and trust amongst communities and with institutions. 266

ii. Governance related to effective implementation of law and justice; establishment 267 and implementation of stronger environmental crimes penalization and enforcement; 268 promotion and strengthening of an environmental prosecution; land use planning and 269 civil society participation. 270

iii. Economic development will focus on land tenure, productive systems, alliances 271 between communities with private sector, and local communities´ livelihoods. 272

1.3 Methodology 273

This analysis combined desk reviews of secondary information and interviews with key 274 stakeholders at the national and regional levels. Specifically, the following activities were 275 conducted over a five-month period between February and July of 2019: 276

1.3.1 Review of secondary information: A review of tropical forests and biodiversity 278 conservation status and USAID/Colombia’s ongoing programs and activities was 279 conducted. All documents and sources consulted over the course of this study are 280 referenced in Annex C. The results of the five regional analyses are included in the case 281 studies (see Annex G). 282

1.3.2 Interviews: Structured and semi-structured interviews were conducted with national 284 and subnational government contacts, NGO’s, private sector, beneficiaries, and 285 implementing partners. Annex D includes the list of contacts consulted for this study. 286

1.3.3 Meetings: These include five thematic meetings with USAID/Colombia. Annex D 288 includes the list of participants. 289

1.3.4 Field visits: The purpose of field visits was to understand regional context of: i) Nudo 291 de Paramillo and Bajo Cauca; ii) Nariño (in lieu of South of Bolivar, Bolivar included in 292 the Scope of Work, Annex A); iii) Guaviare; iv) Caquetá; and, v) Norte de Santander. Case 293 studies are included in Annex G. 294

II. COUNTRY CONTEXT 295

2.1 Location and Country Context 296

Colombia has a surface area of 1,141,748 km2 and 928,660 km2 of territorial waters. It is 297 located in the northern corner of South America and shares a border to the northwest with 298 Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and Peru 299 (Figure 2.1). The geographic location of the Colombian territory, between 2° of South 300 Latitude and 18° of North Latitude and between 66° and 84° of West Longitude, places it in 301 the Inter tropical Confluence Zone (ITCZ). The ITCZ is formed by the confluence of the 302 Northeast and Southwest Trade winds that flow in a south-north direction throughout the 303 entire country causing a variable precipitation regime. The Andes intercept an important 304 part of the humidity transported by these wind currents, generating hyper-humid regimes 305 (>5000 mm/year) in the middle zones of mountain ranges of 1000 to 2000 meters above 306 mean sea level (MASL) and in mountain piedmonts (<1000 MASL.). The country’s 307 climatic variability further influenced by the Niño/Niña phenomena that produce drastic dry 308 and wet seasons. 309 Colombia boasts a diverse geography, a variety of landscapes and ecosystems, and has vast 311 ecosystem goods and services. It hosts close to the 10 percent of the planet’s biodiversity 312 and ranks second among the countries containing the greatest biodiversity in the world. 313 Additionally, Colombia ranks seventh in the world in terms of area covered by tropical 314 forests which cover more than half of the country's mainland area. 315 Intense deforestation is present in municipalities that where most affected by the internal 317 conflict, especially where illicit crop production and land grabbing occurred due to weak or 318 non-existent state presence (See Annex E.1). Various estimates show that environmental 319 degradation in Colombia (e.g. deforestation and forest degradation) represent losses 320 equivalent to 3.7 percent of GDP (World Bank 2018). Agricultural activities (including 321 illicit crops) and cattle grazing are the leading causes of deforestation. 322 In addition to economic push factors that have led rapid urbanization in Latin America, the 324 internal armed conflict is largely responsible for the internal migration. In 1938, 31% of the 325 population lived in urban areas (Arango and Lagos, 1997) and Bogotá only had a 326 population of 325,650 inhabitants. By 2018, Bogota’s population had reached more than 327 seven million inhabitants. The shift in the ratio of rural-urban population was accelerated in 328 the second half of the twentieth century by the internal conflict. Between 1990 and 2010 329 four million rural inhabitants were expelled from their homes and sought protection in 330 urban areas (Andrade et al., 2018). 331 Bogotá and cities like Medellín, Cali, Barranquilla, and Cartagena are city-regions that 333 have an impact beyond their city limits in terms of ever-increasing demand for ecosystem 334 goods and services. The expansion of these cities altered the extent to which rural and 335 urban economies contribute to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). According to the 336 National Planning Department (DNP), 85% of the GDP is generated by urban activities 337 (Barco, 2013 cited in Andrade et al., 2018). 338

Rural Colombia includes human settlements and natural where agriculture and mining take 340 place (See chapter 3). According to DNP, 60% of municipalities are considered rural and 341 30% of the country’s population lives in rural areas. Almost forty million hectares in rural 342 areas are classified as ethnic territories (i.e. indigenous reserves, Afro Colombian collective 343 territories, and ancestral territories). Natural forests cover over 91% percent of ethnic 344 territories (36,2 million hectares), approximately 6% (2,8 million hectares) is destined for 345 agricultural use and a mere two percent is for non-agricultural uses (Andrade et al., 2018). 346 Both indigenous and Afro Colombian communities directly depend on biodiversity for their 348 survival. In fact, all of the 102 indigenous recognized communities have cultural links to 349 biodiversity developed over hundreds of years. 350

Figure 2.1 Colombia´s location, frontiers and 353 main topographic and hydrographic features. 354

City-regions and rural areas include communities with different needs vis a vis biodiversity 356 and ecosystem goods and services; these differences affect biodiversity and conservation. 357 In light of this, effective sustainable environmental strategies must take these differences 358 into consideration. This point will be addressed in the following chapters. 359

2.2 Biophysical Setting 360

The formation of the Colombian geographical relief was largely determined by its location 361 at the confluence of four large tectonic plates (South America, Coco, Nazca and 362 Caribbean). Their clash led to the formation of the three branches of the Andes and the 363 Sierra Nevada mountains, some reaching heights of more than 5000 MASL. The central 364 range has a volcanic and metamorphic origin, while the western and eastern ranges have a 365 sedimentary origin. 366

The east the country is dominated by mountainous rock formations of the Guyana Shield 367 and sedimentary plains. Other sedimentary plains are present both in the Pacific, northern 368 and Caribbean regions. 369 The main river basins formed according to the geographical relief previously described. 371 The wide spaces between the mountain ranges that run from south to north are referred to 372 as inter-Andean valleys. The Cauca River flows between the western and central mountain 373 ranges along 1350 km while the Magdalena River runs between the central and eastern 374 ranges for 1540 km. Both rivers form the Magdalena-Cauca system that has two wetland 375 complexes, Zapatosa and La Mojana, and estuarine systems like Ciénaga Grande de Santa 376 Marta (Jaramillo et al., 2015). In the western Pacific region, the Atrato River basin stands 377 out. In its northern section at the mouth of the Gulf of Urabá, this river forms an extensive 378 complex of floodplain forests (Jaramillo et al., 2015). To the east, the main river basins 379 include the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers. Both rivers have affluents such as the Caquetá 380 and Putumayo Rivers and Guaviare and Meta Rivers To the south of the Guaviare River is 381 the Amazon region and to the north savannas of different types. Two types of savannas 382 stand out, the altillanura located on the piedmont of the eastern Andean range and the 383 seasonally flooded savannas (covered with water between 3 and 5 months of the year) north 384 of the Meta River. 385

Colombia is highly vulnerable to natural hazards. Because of its geological characteristics, 387 the country frequently experiences phenomena such as earthquakes and constant volcanic 388 activity. In fact, 44% of the Colombian territory is exposed to high seismic threats and there 389 are more than 20 active volcanoes. Eighty-six percent of the country’s population lives in 390 areas of high and medium seismic activity, 28 percent are in areas exposed to flooding, and 391 31 percent are in high and medium landslide risks. Climate models predict that climate 392 change will increase the number of floods, droughts, rise in sea levels, and extreme 393 weather-related events. 394

III. STATUS OF COLOMBIAN BIODIVERSITY & TROPICAL FORESTS 396

Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the world after Brazil (a country 397 approximately seven times larger). The combination of three unique biogeographic 398 characteristics explain its megadiversity: 399

1. The Isthmus of Panama emerged from the ocean that separated North and South 401 America 3.7 to 3.1 million years ago during the early Pliocene and formed a 402 continuous bridge between the two continents. Terrestrial fauna and flora were able 403 to migrate in both directions. Ten different families of mammals migrated from 404 North America and their fossils have been found as far south as Argentina. In turn, 405 sloth bear and armadillo fossils from that period have been found in North America. 406 Colombia´s location on the northern corner of South America served as a crossroad 407 for migrating species (Hurtado et al., 2008) 408

2. The ITZC has two general characteristics that correlate with high biodiversity: high 410 rainfall and year-round warm temperatures. For this reason, it is no surprise that all 411 ten of the most megadiverse countries are located in this zone1, six of them in Latin 412 America (Meffe & Carroll, 1994). 413

3. A rugged topography divides the country into five distinct bio geographical regions, 415 each with numerous subdivisions (see section 3.1 below). Over geological time the 416 three Andean mountain ranges and the Baudó range located in Chocó have been 417 both barriers and corridors for the distribution of species. This has resulted in 418 speciation, endemism, and altitudinal and latitudinal differences in ecosystems, 419 species, and genetic richness throughout and between the five regions. 420

This chapter describes Colombia´s megadiversity at three main levels: ecosystems, species, 422 and genes. For each of them, it addresses their threat status and, discusses their economic, 423 social, cultural and ecological importance. 424

3.1 Major ecosystem types and status 426

According to the map of Continental, Coastal and Marine Ecosystems, Colombia has 98 428 general ecosystems (IDEAM, 2015). Seventy-four are considered natural and 24 are 429 anthropogenic. This map also identifies more than 8000 specific ecosystems2. 430

§ Terrestrial Ecosystems: 92,691,148 ha 432 § Aquatic-Continental Ecosystems: 20,528,919 ha 433 § Insular Ecosystems: 8,475 ha 434 § Marine Ecosystems 472,773 ha 435 § Coastal Ecosystems: 767,499 ha 436

1 Ranking of biodiversity: Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia, China, Mexico, Peru, Australia, India, Ecuador and Venezuela 2 The methodology used forthe official map of the ecosystems in 2017 differs from the maps elaborated previously. Data reported in this document cannot be compared with the maps before the 2017 version.

Given the high number of general and specific ecosystems, ecosystems are grouped into 437 forest and non-forest ecosystems and agroecosystems. 438

3.1.1 Non-Forest Ecosystems 440

a. High mountain and páramo ecosystems 442

The term “High Mountain” refers to mountain reliefs formed by glaciers. From a 444 bioclimatic point of view, these areas include páramos and forest ecosystems and high 445 Andean wetlands (glacier and periglacial areas are also included). These areas account for 446 2.5% of the national territory or 2,906,137 ha (Sarmiento et al., 2013). 447 Anthropic activities have transformed significant parts of the natural ecosystems located in 449 high mountain territories and have caused considerable biodiversity loss (particularly in 450 numbers of endemic species) and ecosystem services (Cadena and Sarmiento, 2015). Land 451 cover, including pastures and crops (amounting to 22,600 ha), have replaced fifteen percent 452 (equivalent to 55,000 ha) of the native vegetation in 36 páramos. The introduction of exotic 453 species, specifically forest crops, could reach 3,000 ha. 454 Páramos and glaciers are protected by multiple conservation and legal mechanisms. All 456 glaciers are under the protection of the National Protected Areas System (Spanish acronym 457 SINAP). Additionally, páramos located inside indigenous territories also gain from 458 additional legal protection. Although only 35% of páramo ecosystems fall under different 459 SINAP categories, all of these areas are protected by several regulations including Law 460 99/1993 and the National Development Plans (NDP) of 2010 and 2018. These legal 461 mechanisms banned mining and agriculture in these areas in an effort to preserve or in 462 some cases restore, biodiversity and ecosystem services. At the time of this writing, Law 463 1930/18 still allow low environmental impact agriculture activities to take place in these 464 areas. This law also calls for the development of economic and financial instruments to 465 improve the livelihoods of resident communities (see Chapter 5). 466

b. Wetlands 468

Wetlands encompass different types of ecosystems that due to geomorphological and 470 hydrological conditions accumulate vast amounts of water (temporary or permanent). This 471 gives rise to a hydromorphic soil and organisms such as hydrophilic vegetation (adapted 472 from Jaramillo et al., 2015). Wetlands encompass a wide range of ecosystems ranging from 473 permanent or seasonal bodies of water to floodplain savanna ecosystems and mangroves 474 among others. 475 Seven percent of wetlands are protected under different categories of the SINAP. On the 477 one hand, 13% of wetlands are located within collective territories (indigenous and Afro- 478 Colombian communities), according to Jaramillo et al. (2015). On the other, 24% of these 479 areas have been affected by anthropogenic use (Patiño et al., 2015). These transformations 480 produce changes in the ecosystem, a conclusion supported by the analysis of satellite 481 imagery. Most wetland areas are currently used for agriculture and extensive cattle 482 ranching, or have been deforested as a result of the ever-expanding agricultural frontier. 483

Mining, urbanization, land degradation and forest fires also, albeit to a lesser extent, take 484 place in these areas. According to the Alexander von Humboldt Biological Resources 485 Research Institute (IAvH) cattle ranching take place on over 4,000,000 hectares. This 486 represents about 55% of the total area catalogued as “transformed”. 487 Flooded savannas and mangrove ecosystems deserve a special attention given their 489 biodiversity and cultural relevance. Flooded savannas are located to the north of the Meta 490 River and extend until the Orinoco River in Colombia and Venezuela. Due to surface water 491 accumulation, flooded savannas contain different types of permanent and seasonal habitats 492 particularly important for migratory birds as well as large populations of mammal species, 493 including Chigüiros or Capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), jaguar (Panthera onca), 494 and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). 495

c. Non-flooded savannas 497 Non-flooded savannas, also known as altillanuras, are located in areas with low nutrient 499 soils between the Guaviare and Meta Rivers. The altillanura region is for the most part 500 excluded from the SINAP. This region only has two areas (El Tuparro National Natural 501 Park and Serrania del Manacacías) that represent less than 10% of total protected areas. 502 Transformation of these ecosystems responds to two different drivers: 503

• To the west (mainly in the department of Meta) the altillanura has suffered from 505 increased agro industrial production, mainly African palm, forest (e.g. teak and 506 pine), and cereal crops. However, according to multi temporal analyses, 507 agroindustry has expanded to areas previously dedicated to extensive livestock 508 farming rather than to undisturbed altillanura areas. 509

• Legal and illegal mining is conducted to east of the departments of Vichada and 511 Guanía. There is no consolidated data on the magnitude of the impact of this 512 activity. 513

3.2 Status of tropical forests 514

Tropical forests are ecosystems whose predominant characteristic is the presence of 516 forested areas (canopy higher than 5m, as defined by the Food and Agriculture 517…