MinImpactLVRManual_CH4_PartialDraft.pdf

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Contents – Chapter 4 1

4 CHAPTER 4 BASIC ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS FOR VERY LOW- VOLUME 2

ROADS ........................................................................................................................................................... 4 3

4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 4 4

4.2 TYPICAL ROAD QUANTITIES AND COSTS ................................................................................. 6 5

4.2.1 Economics .................................................................................................................................... 6 6

4.2.2 Costs and Benefits ..................................................................................................................... 87 7

4.3 TRANSPORTATION PLANNING, RMOS, AND ROUTE LOCATION .................................... 1211 8

4.3.1 Terminology ........................................................................................................................... 1211 9

4.3.2 Transportation Planning ....................................................................................................... 1412 10

4.3.3 Road Management Objectives ............................................................................................... 1514 11

4.3.4 Route Location ....................................................................................................................... 1614 12

4.3.5 Office-Based Road Location Studies ..................................................................................... 1817 13

4.3.6 Field Reconnaissance ............................................................................................................ 2019 14

4.3.7 Field Location ....................................................................................................................... 2120 15

4.4 SURVEY, FIELD DEVELOPED CROSS-SECTIONS ................................................................ 2523 16

4.4.1 Survey Process ....................................................................................................................... 2523 17

4.4.2 Traverse and Profile .............................................................................................................. 2624 18

4.4.3 Cross-Sections ....................................................................................................................... 2725 19

4.4.4 Data Recording...................................................................................................................... 2825 20

4.5 ROAD DESIGN STANDARDS .................................................................................................... 3129 21

4.5.1 Design Templates .................................................................................................................. 3331 22

4.6 GEOMETRIC DESIGN ELEMENT AND STANDARDS ........................................................................... 3735 23

4.7 BASIC GEOMETRIC ROAD DESIGN- MANUAL AND COMPUTER METHODS ................. 4240 24

4.7.1 Reduce Field Survey Data ..................................................................................................... 4240 25

4.7.2 Plot the Field Survey Data .................................................................................................... 4442 26

4.7.3 Establish Trial Alignments .................................................................................................... 4947 27

4.7.4 Iterative re runs ..................................................................................................................... 5351 28

4.7.5 Other considerations ............................................................................................................. 5452 29

4.7.6 Earthwork Calculations ......................................................................................................... 5452 30

4.7.7 Mass Ordinate ....................................................................................................................... 5856 31

4.7.8 Design Revisions .................................................................................................................... 5856 32

4.7.9 Slope Stake Data .................................................................................................................... 5957 33

4.7.10 Computer Road Design ......................................................................................................... 5957 34

4.8 CONSTRUCTION, QUALITY CONTROL, PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS ......................... 6159 35

4.8.1 Quality Control ...................................................................................................................... 6159 36

4.8.2 Drawings and Specifications ................................................................................................. 6361 37

4.8.3 Construction Activities .......................................................................................................... 6462 38

4.8.4 Other (Drainage, Subgrade, Surfacing) ................................................................................ 6866 39

4.8.5 Reconstruction ....................................................................................................................... 6967 40

4.9 ROAD MAINTENANCE .............................................................................................................. 7169 41

4.9.1 Hand Maintenance Techniques ............................................................................................. 7472 42

4.10 TEMPORARY ROAD CLOSURE, DECOMMISSIONING AND OBLITERATION ................ 7573 43

4.10.1 Road Closure and Obliteration Treatments ........................................................................... 7775 44

4.11 SIGNING AND ROAD SAFETY, MIXED ROAD USE, COMMERCIAL USE ......................... 8179 45

4.11.1 Commercial Use on FS Roads from BLM Gold Book ........................................................... 8179 46

4.11.2 Commercial Road Use Permits ............................................................................................. 8179 47

4.12 GEOGRAPHIC, TOPOGRAPHIC AND CLIMATIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS, STEEP 48

GRADES, FLAT TERRAIN ..................................................................................................................... 8381 49

4.12.1 Arid Regions .......................................................................................................................... 8381 50

4.12.2 Mountains .............................................................................................................................. 8381 51

4.12.3 Rain Forest ............................................................................................................................ 8482 52

4.12.4 Volcanic Regions ................................................................................................................... 8482 1

4.12.5 Highland Areas ...................................................................................................................... 8583 2

4.12.6 Steep Slopes and Grades ....................................................................................................... 8583 3

4.12.7 Very Flat Terrain ................................................................................................................... 8583 4

4.13 COLD REGIONS ROAD ENGINEERING ISSUES .................................................................... 8684 5

4.14 SUPPLEMENT 4A - TEN COMMANDMENTS OF A GOOD ROAD ......................................................... 8885 6

4.15 SUPPLEMENT 4B - ROAD LOCATION EXERCISE - SOLUTION ........................................................... 9289 7

4.16 SUPPLEMENT 4C - QUANTITIES TABLES ......................................................................................... 9390 8

4.17 SUPPLEMENT 4D (FIGURE 4.1.1) -THE “GOOD ROAD” CHECK LIST ............................................... 9491 9

4.18 SUPPLEMENT 4E - (SUPP4AA) RESHAPING AGGREGATE ROADS.................................................... 9592 10

4.19 SUPPLEMENT 4F (SUPP 4B) ROAD LOCATION ESTABLISHING A SPECIFIC CURVE RADIUS IN THE FIELD9794 11

4.20 SUPPLEMENT 4G (TABLE 4.2.1) - SPECIFIC ROAD ASSESSMENT FOR IMPACTS, COSTS, AND NEEDED 12

WORK 10097 13

4.21 SELECTED REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 4 – BASIC ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS ..................... 10299 14

List of Tables 1 Table 4-1 (Table 4.2.1) Costs and Benefits ............................................................................................ 98 2 Table 4-2 (Table 4.2.2) Typical Quantitites for Given Sideslopes (4.5 M Road Width) .....................109 3 Table 4-3 (Table 4.5.1x) Low Volume Road Design Standards ........................................................... 3129 4 Table 4-4 (Table 4.5.1) _______ .............................................................................................................. 3735 5 Table 4-5 (Table 4.5.2) _______ .............................................................................................................. 3735 6

List of Figures 10 Figure 4-1 (Figure 4.2.x) Road Quantities ................................................................................................ 87 11 Figure 4-2 (Figure 4.2.1) Transportation System to Ideally Serve an Area ...................................... 1312 12 Figure 4-3 (Figure 4.3.x) Alternative Route Location .......................................................................... 1716 13 Figure 4-4 (Figure 4.3.x) Dry Road Location ........................................................................................ 1817 14 Figure 4-5 (Figure 4.4.X) Typical Field Notebook ................................................................................ 2826 15 Figure 4-6 Typical Field-Developed Cross Section ............................................................................... 2927 16 Figure 4-7 (Figure 4.5.1) Typical Road Terms ...................................................................................... 3230 17 Figure 4-8 (Figure 4.5.2) Road Design Templates ................................................................................ 3432 18 Figure 4-10 (Figure 4.5.x) Conversion of Slope distance to Horizontal Distance ............................... 4341 19 Figure 4-11 (Figure 4.5.X) Calculate Vertical distance ........................................................................ 4442 20 Figure 4-12 (Figure 4.5.X) Plotting the Traverse based on bearings and distances. ......................... 4543 21 Figure 4-13 (Figure 4.5.X) Profile View ................................................................................................ 4644 22 Figure 4-14 (Figure 4.5.x) plotting the topography ............................................................................. 4846 23 Figure 4-15 (Figure 4.5.x) Trial grade .................................................................................................. 5048 24 Figure 4-16 (Figure 4.5.x) illustrates the process for drawing vertical curves. ................................. 5149 25 Figure 4-17 (Figure 4.5.x) Typical Templates ...................................................................................... 5250 26 Figure 4-18 (Figure 4.5.X) Horizontal and Vertical Offset ................................................................. 5250 27 Figure 4-19 (Figure 4.5.x) Cross-section and templates ...................................................................... 5553 28 Figure 4-20 (Figure 4.5.x) Earthwork Quantity Sheet ........................................................................ 5553 29 Figure 4-21 (Figure 4.5.x) calculating cross section area .................................................................... 5654 30 Figure 4-22 (Figure 4.6.1) Construction stakes .................................................................................... 6260 31 Figure 4-23 (Figure 4.7.x) Clearing Width vs. Soil Type .................................................................... 6664 32 Figure 4-24 (Figure 4.7.x) Fill Construction Options ........................................................................... 6866 33 Figure 4-25 (Figure 4.8.1) Road Maintenance Needs ........................................................................... 7169 34 Figure 4-26 (Figure 4.8.2) Signs of Road Maintenance Needs ............................................................ 7270 35 Figure 4-27 Balance Between Benefits and Damage from a Road ..................................................... 7573 36 Figure 4-28 (Figure 4.9.x) Road Closure Alternatives ......................................................................... 7977 37

4 CHAPTER 4 BASIC ENGINEERING 1

CONSIDERATIONS FOR VERY LOW- VOLUME 2

ROADS 3

jh/gk/gw/cw 2006 4

Codes. Yellow highlight indicated delete ; red text are suggested rewording or insertions. 5

By Greg Watkins 6

4.1 INTRODUCTION 7

This chapter introduces a broad range of topics related to rural road engineering 8 including: preconstruction (economics, planning, location, survey, and design); 9 construction and maintenance during the life of the road, and finally road closure or 10 decommissioning obliteration when a road is no longer needed. All of Tthe subject matter 11 presented in this chapter is based upon the philosophy that planning and location are key 12 the most important aspects of road development. Quality transportation system planning 13 ensures that a road system can be built to meet the present and future needs of the people 14 it serves while minimizing costs and environmental impacts. 15

Section 4.2 provides a brief introduction to economic considerations for low-volume 16 roads engineering. General philosophies and methods for improving economic efficiency 17 are covered along with typical road quantities and costs which can be used to make 18 preliminary construction cost estimates. 19

Section 4.3 deals with transportation planning and road location. Emphasis is placed 20 on the use of minimum appropriate design standards to reduce environmental impacts, 21 long-term costs, and decrease the modification of natural topography and drainages. 22

RMOs. This is followed by methodology for mapping alternative route locations and 23 performing field reconnaissance and location. 24

Section 4.4 is an introduction to surveying. This section focuses on how to effectively 25 gather and record field data for use in both design and construction. Low-order surveying 26 is emphasized with specifics on how to use simple instruments to measure distances and 27 angles grades or do you mean grades along a proposed route. 28

Section 4.5 presents dDesign sStandards 29

Section 4.6 introduces geometric road design concepts, terminology, design elements 1 and standards, and methods. A step-by-step process for manual road design is presented 2 to allow for a greater understanding of how computerized programs operate. 3

Section 4.7 reviews construction and quality control techniques that should be used 4 to improve the degree to which ensure I do not like the use of the word ensure, as these 5 toold never ensure this. roads are constructed to the designed standards and 6 specifications. This section stresses that properly controlled construction can be very 7 effective in reducing environmental impacts and minimizing future maintenance costs. 8

Likewise, Section 4.8 on road maintenance emphasizes that routine maintenance is 9 essential to protect roads and reduce the chances for prevent environmental damage. Both 10 hand and machine techniques for road maintenance are presented. 11

Section 4.9 discusses road closure and obliteration decomissioning. Potential reasons 12 for closing roads are reviewed with consideration for future need, maintenance costs, and 13 environmental consequences. Techniques for effective closure are presented along with 14 typical treatments for given situations. 15

Section 4.10 discusses rRoad sSafety 16

Section 4.11 presents geographic, topographic, and climatic considerations for road 18 engineering. The discussion focuses on the influence of soil, terrain, and climate on road 19 design and maintenance. Steep Grades and Flat Terrain 20

Section 4.12 presents special considerations for rural roads in cCold rRegions 22

Engineering. 23

In summary, this chapter is intended to address the important aspects of low 25 volume road engineering. A variety of concepts are introduced which demonstrate that 26 careful planning followed by application of appropriate design standards, quality 27 construction control, and routine maintenance is the best formula for successful road 28 management. The themes and recommendations presented in this chapter are expanded 29 upon throughout in the rest of the manual. 30

Supplement 4A presents “The Ten Commandments of a Good Road.” These 1 commandments capture the most important aspects of road planning, design, and 2 maintenance that are constitute the essence of this chapter and the rest of the manual. 3

They emphasize the appropriate design standards and criteria, good drainage, use of 4 good, well-compacted-soils, subgrade preparation, and the important need for of frequent 5 maintenance. 6

? 7

? Supplement 4B presents Road Location Exercise 8

Supplement 4C presents Quantity Tables for Preliminary Costing 9

Supplement 4D presents the “Good Roads Checklist” 10

Supplement 4E presents criteria for shaping aggregate roads 11

Supplement 4F presents road curve calculations 12

Supplement 4G presents a road assessment checklist 13

4.2 TYPICAL ROAD QUANTITIES AND COSTS 16

4.2.1 Economics 17

Properly planned Rroads that are properly planned, designed, and constructed will to 18 provide access with the least long-term cost, and the maximum serviceability. Cost 19 considerations begin with the best location for the road. Of all the people involved in a 20 road project, the road locator has the greatest opportunity to reduce both construction and 21 long-term maintenance costs by using prudent good road location techniques (Section 22

4.3) such as avoiding steep side slopes and unstable terrain, minimizing grades, and 23 minimizing the number of stream crossings. A road constructed in a poor difficult 24 location will be a continual problem and a poor investment to upgrade and maintain. 25

Gordon, how do you address the need of a road to serve a specific access need across 26 poor and steep soils. Somehow the people dictating the basic corridor for the road have 27 the greatest impact on the cost and maintenance of the road. I guess all this book is for 28 minimun standard roads. If someone says they need passenger car grades and a speed of 29 xx MPH, that also affects the cost and maintenance. 30

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", No bullets or numbering

Opportunities for substantial cost savings continue during the design process (Section 1

4.5). The designer can balance earthwork between cut and fill materials to minimize 2 expensive waste and borrow outside of the road prism. In addition, the grade and 3 alignment can be adjusted throughout the project to reduce excavation as much as 4 possible. Proper drainage and surfacing design will ensure benefit serviceability while 5 minimizing maintenance costs. Locating suitable quarries can greatly reduce project 6 materials costs. Pprovided the rock is of sufficient durabable quality. A good road design 7 also accounts for a variety of operational and safety considerations such as curve 8 widening for off tracking, sight distance, and design speed. These provisions yield 9 economic benefits through reduced vehicle operation costs, savings in travel time, and 10 accident reduction. And this also affects intital construction cost as well as long term 11 maintenance. 12

During construction there are opportunities to reduce costs by using proper controls to 13 ensure that the road is constructed according to improve conformance with the the design 14 and specifications (Section 4.6). Savings may also be realized by taking advantage of 15 design modifications for favorable conditions that were not anticipated during design. A 16 few examples: increasing back steepening cut slopes angles when materials encountered 17 are more stable than expected; using all suitable excavated materials instead of hauling 18 from designated sources; achieving specified compaction through control of moisture 19 content; reducing the aggregate base or surfacing when subgrade materials yield more 20 structural support than originally assumed. Quality construction administration will can 21 pay for itself many times over. 22

Figure 4-1 (Figure 4.2.x) Road Quantities 3

4.2.2 Costs and Benefits 5

A cost benefit analysis may be performed to determine if a particular project is 6 justified. A variety of methods and techniques are available, but the bottom line is to 7 compare the actual cost of a project to the anticipated amount of benefit received. This 8 may be considered in the project Environmental Analysis. Identifying, quantifying, and 9 dealing with these costs and benefits can be difficult, especially when considering the 10 perspectives of various groups. Table 4-1Table 4-1 depicts some of the costs and benefits 11 of interest to the owner, the user, and the public at large. These are just a few of the 12 factors that need to be considered along with the construction cost estimate. 13

Table 4-1 (Table 4.2.1) Costs and Benefits 1

Owner: User: Public:

Road surface/ pavement maintenance

Travel time Influence on local economy

Future rehabilitation costs Vehicle operating costs Environment (pollution, noise)

Public attitude and complaints

Accident costs Employment opportunities

Costs related to safety Comfort Accessibility to other areas

Commodity outputs Profit and Risk Aesthetics

The method, accuracy, and necessity for a construction cost estimate is usually 3 dictated by owner or agency policy. The reliability of an estimate is directly influenced 4 by the type and extent of information available to the estimator. Cost estimates are 5 commonly developed at various stages of the project. Preliminary estimates occur during 6 the planning phase based primarily on office information such as topographic maps and 7 aerial photos. Final cost estimates are prepared based on a completed road design that 8 provides a reasonable estimate of quantities. 9

Road costs can be estimated by either constructed costs or historical data (adjusted to 10 present value) or a combination of both. Regardless of the method used to estimate the 11 cost of the project, the project characteristics that have the greatest affecteffect on cost 12 are: 13

Side Slope (percent) across which the road must be constructed 14

Gradient (percent) of the road 15

Template, i.e. inslope with ditch or outslope, or crown. 16

Drainage Crossings (type and quantity) 17

Soil Conditions (common soil, solid rock requiring blasting, rippable rock) 18

Clearing of Vegetation (light, medium, heavy) 19

Remoteness of Project(travel distance from center of local community to project) 20

Length of Project 21

Complexity of Project (in terms of special features and number of items) 1

Special Provisions (e.g. environmental considerations, seasonal closures) 2

In addition, the cost is affected by factors external to the project such as: 4

Production Rates and Fuel costs 5

Labor and Equipment costs 6

Interest rates 7

Material costs 8

Competition, Profit, and Taxes 9

Time of year 10

When planning, locating and designing a road, it is important to keep in mind that 12 road construction and maintenance costs increase dramatically with increased road width 13 and on steep side slopes, with steep grades, and with every each stream crossing. Table 14

4-2Table 4-2 displays typical road quantities and how dramatically they increase when 15 the sideslope increases. 16

Table 4-2 (Table 4.2.2) Typical Quantitites for Given Sideslopes (4.5 M Road Width) 18

10 % Side

Slope

50 % Side Slope %

Increase

Clearing 0.62 ha/km 0.95 ha/km 53 %

Excavation 237 m3/km 2200 m3/km 837 %

Revegetation (cut & fill slopes) 0.10 ha/km 0.89 ha/km 790%

Culvert Length (natural channel) 8 m 22 m 175%

Culvert Length (ditch relief) 6 m 11 m 83%

. I would guess this should be soft metric and show english equivalents and not pure 19 conversions. Ie 6m would use 12 feet. 20

***Add and refer to Figurexxx, Add COST Information, possibly colums for 40% 21

& 60 % Side Slope, and similar chart for a 7 meter wide road (22’)*** 22

Comment [MLR1]: I guess the policy for FS publications is to use English units but include soft conversion to metric in parenthese.

Construction and maintenance costs also increase dramatically with increased width. 1

On steep side slopes, even small increases in road width increase construction 2 significantly because of the large volume of earth that must be moved from the inside of 3 the road bench to obtain the additional road width. For example, an insloped road with a 4 ditch can require movement of up to 60% more material than the same width outsloped 5 road without a ditch. Clearly, If traffic , and soil conditions, and the absenseabsence of a 6 high ground water table, permit, roads should be constructed with an outsloped surface 7

(see Section 4.4 – road templates). 8

4.3 TRANSPORTATION PLANNING, RMOs, AND ROUTE 1

LOCATION 2

Planning and location are the most important aspects of road development (Weist, 3

1998). Quality transportation planning will minimize the impact of a road on the 4 environment and provide low-maintenance, low-cost access for the landowners and the 5 users of the road. Planning and field reconnaissance are critical to avoid problem areas 6 such as landslides or wet areas, to minimize the number of stream or drainage crossings, 7 and to reduce the likehood of costly reconstruction.. prevent costly mistakes. It will pay 8 many times over to sit down and seriously plan for the road and road network before 9 making irreversible deicisionsdecisions that cost extra money, waste time later and 10 damage the environment (Weaver and Hagans, 1994). Quality planning makes good 11 economic sense because at this stage of the process, the most far-reaching economically 12 significant decisions are made. Meanwhile, the planning expenditures are minimal 13 compared to the cost of the overall project. 14

***Refer to Walbridge- “The Direct Location of Forest Roads”*** 15

4.3.1 Terminology 16

For clarity, a few transportiontransportation planning and design terms are defined below. 17

Several of these terms are used throughout this chapter and the remainder of the manual. 18

Design Criteria – Requirements that govern selection of elements and standards 20 for a road, . Ssuch as design speed, points of required access, and season of use, 21 and maximum grades.. 22

Design Elements- The physical characteristics of a road (such as width, 23 shoulders, slopes) that, when combined, comprise the planned facility. 24

Design Standards – The defintive minimum lengths, widths, and depths of 25 individual elements (e.g., a 4.5 m traveled way, 0.5 m shoulders, ¾H:1V 26 cutslopes, 1 m curve widening, and 15 cm of crushed aggregate surfacing). 27

Design Vehicle – The vehicle most often using the road that determines the 28 minimum standard for a particular design element. 29

Critical Vehicle – The vehicle, normally the largest or heaviest, whose limited 30 use on the road is necessary to complete the planned activity (e.g. log yarder, 31 construction equipment, semi-trailer or cargo truck). 1

Network Analysis - A component of transportation planning that is sometimes 2 used to analyze the feasibility of all possible routes (both existing and potential) 3 to ensure that the best route is selected. Where applicable, network analysis can 4 be important because the route that intuitively seems best is not always the most 5 efficient or preferred. It has limited application for many low volume roads where 6 the objective is simply to get from existing point A to a predetermined point B. Its 7 greatest application is on an established road network where there may be several 8 alternative routes or proposed routes to accomplish the same objective. Detailed 9 methodology is beyond the scope of this manual. This is just only a simplified 10 description of the concept and the term. 11

Road Heirarchy - Figure 4-2Figure 4-2 shows a transportation system that might 12 be developed to ideally serve an area. Local roads (sometimes called access 13 roads) are the lowest level in the network hierarchy. These may be low-standard 14 roads (for example, single lane with native surfacing) and intended to need only 15 provide appropriate access to the rural agricultural, commercial, and small 16 population centers. they serve. Typically, local roads intersect onto medium-17 standard collector roads that may be wide single lane, or minimal width double 18 lane roads with graded native or gravel surfacing. Collector roads link traffic to 19 from rural areas to adjacent urban centers by way of the arterial or principal 20 road network. Arterial roads carry more traffic at higher speeds, so they are 21 typically higher-standard double-lane roads with gravel surfacing or pavement. 22

***Reference FS Roads Analysis and others*** 23

(insert Figure 4.3.1) 24

Figure 4-2 (Figure 4.2.1) Transportation System to Ideally Serve an Area 27

Comment [MLR2]: Need this reference.

Comment [MLR3]: Need this Figure

4.3.2 Transportation Planning 1

One of the first steps in transportation planning is to consider make sure that a road 2 will accommodate both present and likely future needs of the road. These needs and the 3 type of anticipated use will determine the appropriate design standards for the road. For 4 low-volume roads, it is important to build the road to a minimum standard to that will 5 accommodate all reasonably anticipated uses and equipment because the higher the 6 standard, the higher the costs (both construction and maintenance) and the higher the 7 environmental impacts. 8

When planning for road access, it is also important to minimize the number of roads 9 constructed because of the initial construction and future maintenance costs.. in a 10 watershed. Make sure that each proposed road is absolutely needed. Road density should 11 be minimized because of cost the amount of land that a road takes out of production. and 12 potential additional environmental impacts. Consider reconstruction of existing roads 13

(even those that are abandoned and overgrown) and use them when practical.ever 14 possible. It may be less expensive and less damaging to the environment to reconstruct 15 existing roads rather than construct new ones. If there are multiple ownerships within one 16 watershed, consider meeting with all of the landowners to plan a road network that can 17 benefit everyone. A shared road network can provide great economic and environmental 18 benefits by saving construction and maintenance costs while minimizing the impact to the 19 landscape. 20

To establish the need and the associated design standards for a proposed road, answer 21 and document the following questions. Note, many of these questions are best answered 22 after research, analysis and consultation with project proponents, resource specialists, 23 agencies, and local residents. 24

What are the objectives and priorities of the project? 25

What are the present access needs and potential future use of the road (e.g., timber 26 harvest, grazing, recreation access, residential access, fire control)? 27

What size and type of vehicles will be using accessing the road (water trucks, 28 recreational vehicles, construction or logging equipment)? What is the design 29 vehicle? What is the critical vehicle? 30

How often and when will the road be used? Is it for short-term use (e.g., for 31 timber harvest) or longer-term daily use (e.g., business or residential access)? 1

Will it be used in all seasons or is it for dry-seasonal use only? 2

If the road is being built for timber harvest, have all possible alternative logging 3 systems been considered? Is it compatible with the requirements of the selected 4 logging system? 5

Does the road fit into the area-wide transportation system of local roads, collector 6 roads, and arterial roads? 7

Only after these questions are answered and the design standards are established, can the 9 locator move forward with the task of locating the road. For example, if the locator does 10 not know the maximum gradients or the minimum horizontal curve radius, then the 11 effectiveness of the trial location is left to chance. A few other preconstruction tasks that 12 take place prior to location are: 13

Identifying areas of resource concern and needed mitigation measures for unstable 14 soils, wildlife, archaeology, soils and water, aesthetics, minerals, recreation, etc. 15

Ensuring that environmental documents are completed and approved; 16

Documentation of Road Management Objectives (RMO’s), which describe who manages 17 the road, how the road will be used, standard road limitations, maintenance frequency, 18 etc. 19

BLM Gold Book 21 Road Functional Classifications - The way a Forest Service road services land and resource management 22 needs, and the character of service it provides. 23

Temporary Road – A road necessary for emergency operations or authorized by contract, permit, 24 lease, or other written authorization that is not a forest road or trail and that is not included in a 25 forest transportation atlas. 26 Local Road – A forest road that connects terminal facilities with forest collector, forest arterial or 27 public highways. Usually forest local roads are single purpose transportation facilities. 28 Collector Road – A forest road that serves smaller land areas than an arterial road. Usually 29 connects forest arterial roads to local forest roads or terminal. 30 Arterial Road – A forest road that provides service to large land areas, and usually connects with 31 other arterial roads or public highways. 32

BLM Gold Road Standards/Specifications-Include table 34

4.3.3 Road Management Objectives 36

Add text 37

4.3.4 Route Location 1

Location is a study of alternatives within a given area that establishes the physical 2 position of a road to best meet the established design criteria. Proper location is 3 particularly critical for low standard roads because the location marked in the field is 4 essentially often become the final horizontal and vertical alignments. In addition the 5 location also controls the drainage. There are three major steps in route location: (1) 6

Office Location Study, (2) Field Reconnaissance, and (3) Field Location. 7

Remember “It is better to have a bad road well located than to have a well 8 designed road poorly located. A bad road can be repaired. A poor location cannot 9 be modified. The majority of the investment in a bad road can be salvaged, but 10 excessive maintenance costs follow little to none can be recovered when the location 11 is poor!” 12

Figure 4-3 (Figure 4.3.x) Alternative Route Location 2

Figure 4-4 (Figure 4.3.x) Dry Road Location 3

4.3.5 Office-Based Road Location Studies 5

Office studies involve researching all available information to establish possible corridors 6 for the road. This review facilitates: the establishment of control points (features or 7 constraints that limit the choice of road locations); identification difficult terrain; 8 minimizing drainage crossings or crossing at the seemingly most desirable locations; 9 consideration of need and location of switchbacks; and other issues. When available, 10 topographic maps and aerial photos areshould be used as a baseline for cross-referencing 11 all available information and marking known points and tentative locations. Note, 12 however, that topographic maps tend to oversimplify topography and aerial photographs 13 exaggerate elevation differences. It is important to remember that small topographic 14 variations such as rock outcrops; small benches, minor streams, and unstable areas will 1 not show up on the most topographic sheets. 2

**Scales available--around 1:20,000 desirable, 1:50,000 often available** 3

Ten step process for office-based road location studies: 4

Step 1. Gather and review topographic maps, aerial photos, and any other resource 5 information available on the area to which access is needed (e.g., planning documents, 6 soils and geology maps, hydrologic data, land status and ownership, and oral 7 communication with local residents and field practitioners who are familiar with the 8 area). 9

Step 2. On the topographic map, mark the proposed beginning and ending points of the 10 road. 11

Step 3. Mark known control points along the route, such as saddles, outcrops, desired 12 access points, etc. 13

Step 4. Compute the elevation difference between each control point. 14

Step 5. Compute the estimated average grade of each road segment between control 15 points by dividing the difference in elevation between two points by the distance that 16 separates them. Problems with excessive grade will become evident at this point. (What 17 is considered “excessive” will vary depending on site conditions and intended use. 18

Typically, 18% grade or steeper is considered excessive.) Is there a discussion of what is 19 excessive? Should one use a 18% grade on a local inorder to avoid an undesirable area? 20

If so then the road surface should be considered for surfacing of some time. Loaded 21 truck and RV’s should not be subjected to sustained steep downgrades because of 22 braking problems. 23

Step 6. Use the grades established in the previous step in combination with the map 24 contour interval to establish the distance to set on the dividers. The equation is (distance 25

= contour interval/grade). For example, for a grade of 8% on a map with a 10- meter 26 contour interval, the equation is: distance = 10/0. 08, where “10” is the contour interval 27 and “0.08” is the decimal representation of the 8% grade. Distance is the horizontal 28 distance needed to travel at 8% to goclimb 10 vertical meters vertical. Solving for 29

“distance” = 125 meters. 30

Step 7. Set the dividers equal to a scaled distance of 125 meters on the map. 31

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Step 8. Use the dividers to measure from one contour line to the next. Leave tick marks 1 where the divider intersects each contour line. 2

Step 9. Connect the tic marks on the map to show a grade, as it would travel on the 3 ground within the accuracy of the map. 4

Step 10. If any road segment misses intended control points or end points, or if the grade 5 of any segment is too steep, is there a table of recommended grades somewhere? then 6 simply increase or decrease the trial grade (as appropriate), adjust the divider setting and 7 keep trying. Individual segments or the entire road may have to be re-routed until each 8 alternative segment and grade is satisfactory. 9

Using this 10-step process, develop two or more alternative routes. The end product 11 of the office location study is a field-ready map with potential corridors identified along 12 with related information such as control points, potential material sources, wet or 13 unstable areas, proposed stream crossings, and property lines. This map serves as a 14 critical guide for subsequent fieldwork. For most roads, a few hours spent in the office 15 will can save countless hours in the field. Perhaps you have made the determination 16 that this paper will only address local roads used to access natural resources. If so 17 this entire discussion may be acceptable. But if we are looking at access in a broader 18 picture, ie initally timber access, but later on recreational RV’s then the road should 19 be located with different criteria. Road Management Objectives for the long term 20 need to be decided upon. 21

4.3.6 Field Reconnaissance 23

The next step is to go out and walk the alternate routes. Using the base map developed 24 in the office, walk the entire length of each corridor to become familiar with the terrain 25 and to determine the feasibility, advantages, and disadvantages of each. It is best to 26 perform this step at a time of year when the leaves foliage is are off the trees and brush is 27 at a minimum to allow for greatest visibility. During the process, the control points (both 28 known and unknown) are verified and/or noted on the map. In addition, specific problem 29 areas such as difficult drainages crossing, sharp ridges, switchback areas, steep grades 30 and cross-slopes, unstable and wet areas, and intersections are examined and evaluated. 31

Comment [MLR4]: Can we insert a table of recommended grades?

Comment [MLR5]: Most of these steps can be done automatically on a computer nowadays with Autocad or similar software. I don’t have experience with it but we should mention this.

Its still good to spell out the manual steps so the reader knows what its all about, but we should probably make it clear that this is the old way.

Comment [MLR6]: Gordon needs to consider this comment and modify text if necessary.

Also, the field reconnaissance offers the opportunity exists to evaluate the soil and rock 1 types along the routes, particularly as these materials may relate to excavation and 2 construction costs, and potential for impacts such as erosion. The end result of this 3 reconnaissance is a determination of which corridor is most suitable (the preferred 4 alternative). 5

Listed below are some specific factors that should be considered in this initial 7 reconnaissance: 8

Avoid drainage crossings. When a drainage must be crossed, do it in as short a 10 distance as possible, and in a relatively flat reach of the stream if possible; 11

Locate where road grades can be minimized;. sSteep grade pitches should be as 12 short as possible, allow for rolling grades rather than sustained constant grades to 13 minimize surface erosion on native or aggregate roads; 14

Locate on cross slopes that are gentle enough to minimize earthwork, but steep 15 enough to promote drainage (ideally such as 10-40% natural cross slopes); 16

Aspect. - fFavor slopes with sunny exposures to promote dry drier road 17 conditions; 18

Note areas of well-fractured rock formations or granular soils for potential use in 19 construction. 20

Record specific data about problem areas (e.g., wet or unstable areas, large rock 21 outcrops) such as extent, slope, soil type, vegetation, and any other observations. 22

4.3.7 Field Location 24

Next, the corridor that was selected as most suitable (or preferred) during 25 reconnaissance should beis marked on the ground with survey flagging (referred to as a 26 tagline or a flagline.). The route is roughly marked along the grade determined on the 27 planning contour map. Use a hand-held clinometer or abney level to site the percent 28 grade and tie ribbons on trees or branches at eye-level. Site at a distance ahead that 29 allows you to see back when you walk to that point (it is sometimes easier for two people 30 to do this). 31

Road locatiingon is an iterative process. If the predetermined fixed grade approaches 1 obstacles or misses control points, simply work back to a point where the grade or 2 alignment can be adjusted and modify the location accordingly. The proposed route may 3 be flagged on-the-ground, and then adjusted several times to avoid certain features, to 4 avoid steep grades or adjust the alignment to establish more consistent grades, to 5 minimize landform modification and earthwork, to take advantage of benches and 6 favorable terrain, or to access additional locations along the route. 7

The location ofLocating curves and switchbacks requires a little more thought and 8 care during road location. If the locator has a thorough understanding of the curve 9 geometry required for various design standards, and if this knowledge is applied during 10 road location, the design process will be greatly facilitated. The following are some of the 11 factors that the locator should be considering on curve and switchback locations: 12

Horizontal Curves are needed where the road changes direction. They consist of 13 a central circular segment where the radius is constant. Design standards usually 14 dictate the minimum curve radius based on the roads width and the vehicles 15 expected to use the road, sight distance, and topography. Although the exact 16 radius and location of the curve is determined during design, the locator must 17 ensure the feasibility of sharper curves. One of the simplest methods of doing this 18 is the Center Stake Method if the absense of vegetation density permits. First, the 19 center of the curve is found through trial and error by moving back and forth 20 along the tangents leading into and out of the curve with a string or tape the length 21 of the proposed radius at right angles to the road until a common point is found. 22

Then, swing use the string (or tape) and swing it in an arc extending out from the 23 center stake (Figure 4.3.X.). The length of the radius must be adjusted to account 24 for slope distance. Yeah, and this works best in National Grass Lands. For 25 example, a 20 m curve on a 55% slope would be marked with a radial swing of 26

23.9 m. For more information on calculating slope distances, see “Reducing 27

Survey Data” in Section 4.5. In locations with long curves, steep slopes, or poor 28 visibility, the Stick Method of curve location may be more convenient. For 29 information on the Stick Method see Supplement 4-2__ (P.6 of Landowners 30

Guide converted to Metric). ( I used the tangent offset method to approximate a 31

Comment [MLR7]: Need this Figure. Or delete Figure reference.

Comment [MLR8]: Need this info on the “Stick Method.”

Comment [MLR9]: Include entire “Landowner’s Guide” as Supplement? Or include excerpt of that portion of it?.

horizontal curve within a couple of feet.) 1

Switchbacks are required where it is not possible to connect two control points 2 with a maximum grade in a single direction. In other words, the road must 3

“switch” directions to continue a desired ascent upslope. Benches or areas with 4 gentle side slopes are good switchback locations. For specific instructions on 5 locating a switchback, see Supplement 4-___3. (P.7 of Landowners Guide 6 converted to metric) 7

Grade Reductions may be necessary at The road grade of both horizontal 8 curves and switchbacks should be minimized to allow for safety and to avoid 9 excessive wear on the road. For sharp horizontal curves over some degree of 10 delta angle, the grade should at least be reduced throughout the curve from the 11 average grade coming into the switchback. Suggested grade reductions range 12 from 1% on the longest curves (50-140 m radius) to 4% on the smallest radius 13 curves (20 m radius). Switchbacks should have little or no grade, but where 14 switchback grades are unavoidable, they should not exceed 8%. 15

Vertical Curves are created when the grade changes from uphill to downhill 16

(crest curve) or downhill to uphill (sag curve). It is important to provide a smooth 17 transition between the two grades (approaching and leaving) in accordance with 18 the requirements of the anticipated traffic and the sight distance. To provide a 19 smooth transition, the designer will be adjusting the vertical offset between the 20 height of the road and the point where the two gradients meet. In other words, a 21 vertical offset involves cutting on a crest curve or filling a sag curve. The extent 22 of this vertical offset depends on the length of the curve and the difference in the 23 two grades (Figure 4.3.X) (Page 9 of the Landowners guide, modified and 24 converted to metric). 25

Once the locator has completed the “tagline”, the located line is ready for the survey that 27 will record all of the terrain and control point data necessary for design. A while back 28 you stated the location of the flagline often became the location of the road. So you need 29 to state that Subsequent detailed surveys along the flagline are desirable when the road is 30 intended to provide arterial access, where higher speeds and traffic volumes are expected. 31

Comment [MLR10]: Need this info on Locating Switchbacks.

Comment [MLR11]: Include entire “Landowner’s Guide” as Supplement? Or include excerpt of that portion of it?.

Comment [MLR12]: Need this Figure. Or delete Figure reference.

Comment [MLR13]: Include entire “Landowner’s Guide” as Supplement? Or include excerpt of that portion of it?.

Comment [MLR14]: Insert discussion about flagline becoming road location as discussed.

4.4 SURVEY, FIELD DEVELOPED CROSS-SECTIONS 1

The objective of a road survey or Preliminary line, is to measure the ground form and 2 conditions along the located route and to identify topographic features and other physical 3 factors needed for both design and construction control. Road surveys typically involve 4 establishing points on the ground along a proposed route; measuring angles, distances, 5 and slopes between the established points; and measuring the side-slope at each point. 6

This numeric data is recorded along with non-numeric data such as information on 7 drainage, materials, and resources. This data is used to determine road plans and cross-8 sections, earthwork quantities, construction details such as drainage crossings, curve -9 widening and switchbacks, and other design details. 10

The amount, detail, and accuracy of the data collected should beis commensurate with 11 the standard of the road and with the values, resources, and risks associated with the 12 project. Most low-volume road projects need only a low-order survey, using equipment 13 such as cloth tape or string measuring devices, hand compass, and clinometer or Abney. 14

The accuracies are typically to the nearest 0.1 meter and 1.0 percent slopes. Higher 15 standard roads or detailed site surveys often involve use of equipment such as transits, 16 theodolites, steel tapes, electronic distance meters (EDMs), photogrammetric…