SOO Annex 6 - Hariyo Ban Program - Chitwan-Annupurna Landscape.pdf

CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE

BIODIVERSITY ImPORTANT

AREAS AND LINKAGES

Hariyo Ban Program

CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE

BIODIVERSITY ImPORTANT

AREAS AND LINKAGES

© WWF 2013

All rights reserved Any reproduction of this publication in full or in part must mention the title and credit WWF.

Published by WWF Nepal, Hariyo Ban Program This publication is also available in www.wwfnepal.org/publications

PO Box: 7660 Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal T: +977 1 4434820, F: +977 1 4438458 info@wwfnepal.org or hariyobanprogram@wwfnepal.org www.wwfnepal.org/hariyobanprogram

Authors This report was prepared by the Kathmandu Forestry College, Koteswor, Kathmandu.

The assessment team was led by Uday Raj Sharma.

ISBN: 978-9937-8154-7-5

Cover photo credits Snow leopard - naturepl.com/Francois Savigny/WWF Great Indian hornbill - David Lawson/WWF-UK Red panda - Gerald S. Cubitt/WWF-Canon Gangetic dolphin - François Xavier Pelletier/WWF-Canon Greater one-horned rhino - Michel Gunther/WWF-Canon A community forest in Kamdi corridor and Blackbuck - WWF Nepal, Hariyo Ban Program/Pallavi Dhakal

Disclaimer This report is made possible by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The contents are the responsibility of Kathmandu Forestry College (KAFCOL) and do not necessarily reflect the views of WWF, USAID or the United States Government.

Publication Services Design and Layout: Digiscan Pre-press Pvt. Ltd.

Other publications in this series Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape: Rapid Assessment Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape: Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation

Hariyo Ban Program publication number: Report 012

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The Government of Nepal has identified landscape level planning and conservation as a broad strategy to conserve biodiversity and improve livelihoods of local communities dependent on natural resources.

It has therefore recognized two landscapes in Nepal, Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) in 2000 and Sacred Himalayan Landscape (SHL) in 2006, to help establish east-west connectivity that is crucial for biodiversity conservation. WWF Nepal is an active partner of the Government of Nepal and works closely with conservation agencies and local communities in both the landscapes to conserve the rich biological diversity of Nepal.

Recognizing the need to develop a north-south linkage that is vital to provide a safe passage of river and forest corridors for wildlife, migratory birds and aquatic animals, the Chitwan Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) was envisioned. CHAL is not a new concept. It is based on the Chitwan-Annapurna Linkage for which WWF Nepal had produced a report, ‘Biodiversity Assessment and Conservation Planning’, in 2000.

Since 2011, through the Hariyo Ban Program funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), WWF Nepal together with the consortium partners – CARE Nepal, FECOFUN and NTNC – has started working in CHAL to empower local communities in safeguarding Nepal’s living heritage and adapting to climate change through conservation and livelihood approaches.

The three CHAL reports – A Rapid Assessment, Biodiversity Important Areas and Linkages, and Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation – provide important insights in understanding this important landscape in terms of its rich biodiversity, eco-regions, community and threats to further help develop pathways to build the landscape as a leading example in functional connectivity across multiple ecological communities.

I would like to thank the Government of Nepal for their support and invaluable feedback throughout various stages of this study. I also thank USAID for funding this study under the Hariyo Ban Program, and the Hariyo Ban consortium partners.

Anil Manandhar Country Representative WWF Nepal

Foreword

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Preface

The Chitwan Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) supports over 4.5 million people of diverse ethnicities, cultures and religions, many of whom are dependent on forest resources and ecosystem services for their livelihoods and wellbeing. The CHAL is one of two priority working areas for the USAID funded Hariyo Ban program. This remarkable geographic area encompasses an altitudinal range of over 8000m.

Comprising the Gandaki River basin in Nepal, the CHAL spans a diverse topography which runs from the trans-himalayan rain-shadow on the Tibet border and part of the Himalaya range in the north, down through the mid-hills and Churia range, to the fertile plains of the Terai in the south bordering with India. This landscape has high biodiversity value and contains seven major sub-river basins: Trishuli, Marsyangdi, Seti, Kali Gandaki, Budi Gandaki, Rapti and Narayani.

Environmental degradation and high poverty rates create a potent mix of threats to both people and biodiversity in the CHAL. These threats are aggravated by limited understanding of the impacts of climate variability and climate change on the people and biodiversity in the CHAL.

In the growing context of increasing temperature and environmental change, the CHAL will play a crucial role in long-term biodiversity conservation and building resilience to climate change in Nepal. The three CHAL reports – A Rapid Assessment, Biodiversity Areas and Linkages, and Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation – are expected to provide an in-depth understanding of the landscape, its biodiversity and threats to help build people’s resilience to climate change and conserve biodiversity. USAID intends these reports to form the foundation for long-term conservation and development in the CHAL.

USAID Nepal would like to thank the Government of Nepal for their valuable support and suggestions in developing this study. We also acknowledge the untiring efforts of WWF Nepal, CARE Nepal, FECOFUN and NTNC team along with USAID’s Mr. Netra Sharma (Sapkota) to shape, review and enrich this document. While this report and the other related studies will be used intensively by the Hariyo Ban Program as a basis for USAID’s future work in the landscape, the information within is intended for use by a much wider audience - e.g., the Government of Nepal, civil society, private sector and donors working in the CHAL area - for the ultimate benefit of the people and biodiversity of Nepal.

Ms. Tahalia Barrett Acting Director Social, Environmental and Economic Development (SEED) Office USAID Nepal

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I would like to express our great appreciation to the Kathmandu Forestry College team for undertaking the study which was authored by Dr. Uday R. Sharma.

Several organizations and individuals made significant contributions to the study. This work would not have been possible without the support of the Government of Nepal. We would like to thank senior officials in the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation (MoFSC) and its various departments for their valuable contributions.

Special thanks go to Dr. Rajan Pokharel, Regional Director, Western Regional Directorate of Forests, for his excellent support and coordination with government line agencies. Comments and suggestions provided by Krishna Acharya, Chief, Planning Division, MoFSC, and Dr. Maheshwar Dhakal, Ecologist, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation were very helpful in enriching the reports.

Special thanks also go to the heads of several district level government line agencies, particularly District Forest Offices, District Soil Conservation Offices, District Livestock Offices, District Women Development Offices, and District Development Offices. I would also like to thank individual experts and representatives of various NGOs and civil society who generously provided their valuable time to enhance this report with their insights and suggestions. Representatives from FECOFUN district chapters and Community Forest User Groups made significant contributions during the consultations. Thank you to Purna Kunwar, Dev Raj Gautam, Ganga Neupane, Raj Kumar Gurung and their respective teams in the Hariyo Ban consortium partners for their active participation in the study and support to the consultation meetings.

I highly appreciate the inputs of Hariyo Ban central level team members, in particular Sandesh Hamal, Dr. Shant Raj Jnawali, Dr. Sunil Regmi, Keshav Khanal and Shikha Shrestha for their critical inputs, review and suggestions at various stages of the study. Pallavi Dhakal managed the complex production process.

Jayendra R. Koirala, Prabita Shrestha and Salina Shrestha provided administrative and contractual support.

Thank you also to Dr. Ghana Shyam Gurung, Conservation Program Director, WWF Nepal for providing valuable inputs, and to Gokarna J. Thapa for his untiring efforts in GIS analysis and mapping.

Finally, this report would not have been possible without the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). I would like to give heartfelt thanks to Netra Sharma Sapkota, USAID Agreement Officer’s Representative (Project Manager) for the Hariyo Ban Program, for his helpful engagement at various times during the study, and suggestions for the final document.

Judy Oglethorpe Chief of Party

Acknowledgments

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Table of Contents

Acronyms and Abbreviations ix

Executive Summary xi

1. Introduction 1

2. Brief Methodology 3

3. Highlights of Biodiversity in CHAL 4

4. Wetlands of CHAL 8

5. Threatened and Endemic Species 10

6. Corridors 13

7. Biodiversity Areas in CHAL 17

8. Biodiversity Conservation Issues in CHAL 23

9. Climate Refugia and Adaptation to Climate Change 27

10. Recommendations 28

References 29 Annex A: Checklist for Biodiversity and Corridors 32

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List of Tables

3.1 Distribution of Flowering Plants in Different Physiographic Zones in the Central Region of Nepal 7

5.1 Protected Plants of Nepal 10

5.2 CITES Listed Plants found in Nepal 11

5.3 Protected Wildlife of Nepal 12

5.4 Nepalese Species in the Appendices of CITES 12

8.1 Summary of Conservation Issues Identified in the CHAL Area 23

List of Figures

1.1 Location of the Study Area 1

6.1 Naturally Existing Corridors in CHAL Area 14

6.2 Proposed North-South and East-West Corridors in CHAL Area 15

7.1 Major Hotspots in CHAL Area 17

7.2 Major Biological Corridors and Hotspots in CHAL Area 22

T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

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Acronyms and Abbreviations

ACA Annapurna Conservation Area BA Biodiversity Area BPP Biodiversity Profiles Project BZ Buffer Zone CA Conservation Area CAMP Conservation Assessment and Management CBAPO Community Based Anti-Poaching Operation CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CF Community Forest CHAL Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CNP Chitwan National Park DDC District Development Committee DFO District Forest Office/Officer DFSCC District Forest Sector Coordination Committee DNPWC Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation DoF Department of Forests EIA Environmental Impact Assessment GHL Greater Himalayan Landscape GIS Geographic Information System GoN Government of Nepal HB Hariyo Ban IAPS Invasive Alien Plant Species IBA Important Bird Area ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development IEE Initial Environmental Examination IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature LNP Langtang National Park MAP Medicinal and Aromatic Plant MCA Manaslu Conservation Area MIST Management Information System Tool MoE Ministry of Environment MoFSC Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation MW Megawatt NAPA National Adaptation Plan of Action NGO Non-governmental Organization NP National Park NTCC National Tiger Conservation Committee NTFP Non-Timber Forest Product NTNC National Trust for Nature Conservation PA Protected Area PWR Parsa Wildlife Reserve REDD Reducing Emissions through Deforestation and Forest Degradation SAWEN South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network SHL Sacred Himalayan Landscape SNNP Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park TAL Terai Arc Landscape TAR Tibet Autonomous Region UK United Kingdom USA United States of America VDC Village Development Committee WCCB Wildlife Crime Control Bureau

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The Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) in central Nepal is known for its biodiversity. The landscape is drained by eight major rivers (Kali Gandaki, Seti, Madi, Marsyangdi, Daraundi, Budi Gandaki, Trishuli, Rapti) and their tributaries of the broader Gandaki River system. It includes the whole of the Kali Gandaki River Basin in Nepal, encompassing all or part of 19 districts that fall within CHAL, with all or part of six protected areas represented in this landscape. The proposed landscape is 32,068 km2 – 11.4 percent in the Siwaliks, 37.8 percent in the midhills, and 50.8 percent in the mountains. CHAL is a portion of a larger landscape, the Greater Himalayan Landscape, conceived in 1999.

Of the 17 priority “Conservation Landscapes” identified at that time, this Greater Himalayan Landscape, covering a vast area of 69,200 square km, was intended to provide adequate space for large vertebrates and facilitate ecological processes dependent on altitudinal connectivity. WWF Nepal in 2000 explored potential linkages following the existing major river systems and their tributaries.

The terrestrial connectivity using the existing forests, including the community forests, was not explored in that study. The protected areas established in Nepal so far have no north-south landscape linkages. The proposed corridors and biodiversity areas recognized under this study are based on the information generated through cluster level and community level meetings coupled with experts’ prior experience in those areas and careful analysis of Geographic Information System (GIS) maps. The information, however, is not exhaustive and needs field verification.

Highlights of biodiversity in CHAL have been summarized for the Siwaliks, midhills and mountains as follows: (i) The Siwaliks zone has unique grasslands and riverine forests, high ungulate density, high numbers of carnivore species, and a growing population of tiger and rhino. Chitwan National Park and Barandabhar Forest and Wetlands are recognized as Important Bird Areas of the country. The Beeshazari Lake is also a Ramsar site. (ii) The midhills have Schima- Castanopsis forests, which are denuded near settlements or encroached for agriculture. This zone has a recorded high number of flowering plants. Diversity of orchids is high, especially in the Panchase Hills. Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park also represents the unique biodiversity of the midhills. The forest provides suitable habitat for laughing thrushes, barbets and bulbuls, and for leopard, clouded leopard and a number of small mammals. (iii) The mountains are represented by the Annapurna Conservation Area, Manaslu Conservation Area and Langtang National Park, which harbor unique biodiversity of northern Nepal, including a stable population of snow leopard and its prey species. The Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) lists 102 mammals, 39 reptiles and 23 amphibians. ACA is recognized as an Important Bird Area of Nepal. (iv) Being situated at the divide of the Eastern and Western Himalaya, the Kali Gandaki gorge is a recognized corridor for birds to migrate. (v) A list of ponds and water bodies has been described, but is not an exhaustive list and further study would be required to understand the wetland ecosystems of CHAL. The Goisankunda-Naukunda Lake System, a Ramsar site, through its 16 interconnected lakes provides critical habitat for rare and endemic plants and animal found in the highlands of Langtang National Park. (vi) Protected plants and wildlife, CITES listed plants and animals, and endemic plants and animals found in CHAL have also been described.

The potential four north-south corridors and three east-west corridors proposed by the study are:

Executive Summary

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North-South Corridors:

Barandabhar Forest – Gaighat – Seti River Valley – Panchase – Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA);

Barandabhar Forest – Gaighat – Set River Valley – Madi River Valley – ACA;

Buffer Zone forests of Chitwan National Park in Nawalparasi – Churia Range – Mahabharat Range

– Panchase – ACA, and Manhari, Parsa Wildlife Reserve – Namtar – Simbhanjyang – Shivapuri Nagarjung National Park – Langtang National Park.

East-West Corridors:

Rasuwa – Gorkha – Dhading along Ganesh Himal base camp (200 m counter line);

Dhorpatan – ACA (taking 2,000 m contour line);

and ACA – Manaslu Conservation Area (MCA) Bhimtan Block (taking 2,000 m contour line).

In terms of priority, the corridor, Barandabhar- Gaighat-Seti River Valley-Panchase-ACA has been given the highest priority. The study recommends 23 biodiversity areas for focused conservation.

The information on some of the biodiversity areas proposed are sketchy, for which further field work would be required.

The top ten conservation issues described and discussed in the report are (i) degradation of wildlife habitat due to deforestation and degradation of wetland and rangeland; (ii) poaching and trade of wildlife including protected species due to absence/inadequate effective control mechanism; (iii) illegal harvest of forest resources, especially Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs); (iv) adverse effects due to alien invasive plant species; (v) forest fires, floods and landslides;

(vi) diversion of rivers or construction of dams;

(vii) crop and livestock depredation by wildlife, and human injuries or casualties; (viii) conversion of forest/forest land for non-forestry uses; (ix) inadequate awareness and motivation to protect biodiversity, and (x) weak institutional capacity.

Many of the identified biodiversity areas, especially those falling in the corridors, function as climate refugia. The protected areas have altitudinal variations, creating opportunity for climate refugia.

Increased temperatures over recent decades have made possible upward movements of vegetation;

encroachment of invasive species; spread of new diseases and pests; increased incidence of dryness and fires; changed grass composition in the rangelands; and loss of local crop varieties. Upward migration of species would affect the composition of plant communities and vulnerable species may decrease in abundence if environmental factors such as soil and moisture become limiting factors.

The effects of climate change will tend to aggravate the complex mountain poverty situation, which is affected by the fragility of ecosystems, remoteness, poor accessibility and marginalization of mountain communities from the mainstream. Community based forest management systems are recognized as opportunities for implementing adaptation and mitigation measures to address the adverse impacts of climate change in CHAL, as elsewhere in Nepal.

Recommendations are made to create a sound policy and legislative environment for conserving corridors and biodiversity areas, to establish a system for documentation of the status and management of biodiversity, and to address several current management related issues.

E x E C U T I v E S U M M A R y

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The Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) in central Nepal is known for its rich biodiversity.

The landscape is drained by eight major rivers (Kali Gandaki, Seti, Madi, Marsyangdi, Daraundi, Budi Gandaki, Trishuli, Rapti) and their tributaries of the broader Gandaki River system (Fig 1). The coverage of CHAL has been described to include the whole of the Kali Gandaki River Basin in Nepal, encompassing all or part of 19 districts with all or part of six protected areas. The districts represented in CHAL are Mustang, Manang, Gorkha, Rasuwa, Nuwakot, Dhading, Lamjung, Tanahu, Chitwan, Nawalparasi, Syanja, Kaski, Parbat, Baglung, Myagdi, Gulmi, Arghkhachi, Makwanpur, and Palpa. Chitwan and Nawalparasi Districts overlap both Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) and CHAL. The protected areas are Chitwan National Park (CNP) and its Buffer Zone, a portion of Parsa Wildlife

Introduction 1

Figure 1.1 Location of the Study Area

Reserve (PWR) and its Buffer Zone, Shivapuri Nagarjung National Park (SNNP), Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), Manaslu Conservation Area (MCA), and a portion of Langtang National Park (LNP) and its Buffer Zone.

The Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) is a portion of a larger landscape, the Greater Himalayan Landscape; the latter, conceived during a workshop organized for developing a biodiversity vision in Nepal in December 1999 (see WWF and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) 2001). Of the 17 priority “Conservation Landscapes” identified by the team, this Greater Himalayan Landscape of a vast area of 69,200 square km was intended to provide adequate space for large vertebrates and facilitate ecological processes dependent on altitudinal connectivity.

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The Eastern Himalayan Ecoregion, which consists of diverse forest ecosystems of alpine, temperate and subtropical forests, includes three ecoregions belonging to the WWF’s Global 200 Ecoregions:

the Eastern Himalayan Alpine Meadows, the Eastern Himalayan Broadleaf and Conifer Forests, and Terai-Duar Savannas and Grasslands. The Eastern Himalaya, which extends eastwards from the gorge of the Kali Gandaki River to Myanmar, hosts part of the global biodiversity “hotspot” – the Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot and harbors diverse ecosystems, species and genetic resources of global significance (Mittermeier et al. 2004). There is also a high level of endemism (Myers et al. 2000).

The Greater Himalayan Landscape extends south to the Chitwan-Parsa-Valmiki protected areas of Nepal and India, and comprises Terai grasslands, riverine forests and subtropical forests, predominated by sal (Shorea robusta). The Chitwan National Park harbors an exceptionally diverse wildlife population.

It provides stable populations of tiger, leopard and their prey species and also includes rhinoceros and several other species of mammals, and harbors more than 540 species of birds (Baral and Upadhyaya 2006). On the northern side of the landscape are Qomolongma Nature Preserve in Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) of China and Sagarmatha and Langtang National Parks, Annapurna Conservation Area, Manaslu Conservation Area, and Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park.

The linkages between the north and south in CHAL and its ecologically unique ecoregions have been studied by Basnet et al. (2000). The area falls in the watersheds of the Kali Gandaki, Marsyangdi, Modi, Seti, Madi, Trishuli, Rapti and Narayani Rivers.

The potential linkages identified were by following the existing major river systems including their tributaries. The terrestrial connectivities using the existing forests, including community forests, were not explored in that study. It should be noted that the protected areas established in Nepal have no north-south landscape linkages. The buffer zones created around the national parks and reserves have increased the size of park/reserve and have also provided suitable habitats for plants and animals for local movements and also to some extent provide options for adaptation to climate change. Creation of corridors connecting two or more protected areas can also provide suitable habitat for plant and animal and options for adaptation to climate change.

Furthermore, corridors would act as climate refugia where species could move to avoid temperature rise and other environmental constraints. More work of this type is required to identify the local biodiversity rich areas and climate refugia in the landscape, which would require more attention for conservation and integration at the landscape level.

Also, an issue for discussion could be whether CHAL should justifiably concern itself with the linkages between Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) and Chitwan National Park, or a larger landscape of 19 districts, as has been proposed by the Hariyo Ban Program. Similarly, what would be the model to protect CHAL? Should it be similar to the model adopted in TAL, where the government agencies, especially the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, and the Department of Forests undertake the functions of biodiversity conservation and associated livelihood related activities in coordination with district level government line agencies including District Forest Offices (DFOs), District Development Committees (DDCs) and Protected Areas (PAs) at the district/PA level, and in coordination with user groups, user group network, and Buffer Zone Council at grassroots level? Or, should the area be declared as a conservation area, as opined by Wikramanayake et al. (1998). Some of the questions raised here are clearly beyond the scope of the current work, but this rapid assessment provides insights on the way forward.

In any case, earlier works (Basnet et al. 2000 and WWF and ICIMOD 2001) and current understandings have amply justified the need for the connectivity and linkages: (i) altitudinal connectivity is considered beneficial for maintaining the ecological integrity of the larger landscape; (ii) over 400 species of birds undertake seasonal migration from the lower forest areas to the higher elevation habitats;

connectivity would assure their vital seasonal activity;

(iii) the connectivity permits the migration of flora and fauna, or to accommodate adaptation to changes in climate; (iv) even maintaining fragmented forest patches as “stepping stones” for birds and possibly other species is a better strategy than loss of those forests; and (v) some floral endemism hotspots are outside the PAs and need equal efforts for their conservation.

This study has identified and mapped (using GIS) biodiversity rich areas and potential areas for biodiversity conservation in CHAL, with particular focus on areas that lie outside the PAs. It has also identified existing and potential biological corridors (including forest and freshwater) that could effectively serve as north-south linkages and potential climate change refugia. In addition, the study has broadly assessed the current status of biodiversity, major management issues and threats, and recommends major activities and approaches required for addressing the issues.

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A detailed methodology has been described in a separate report. This paper summarizes the mechanisms used to generate primary information for this work.

Two teams comprising biodiversity or forestry experts visited several field sites representing all 19 districts of CHAL. Cluster level meetings were organized to understand the view points of district based government agencies, Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs), civil society and experts.

The two teams split after the first joint, larger meeting in Pokhara, in which all key Hariyo Ban professional staff participated. The eastern team participated in two all-day cluster-level meetings organized in Besisahar, Lamjung and Bidur, Nuwakot, and 10 community level meetings. The western team participated in two similar cluster level meetings organized in Beni, Myagdi district and Palpa district. There were seven community level meetings organized for the western team. The

Brief Methodology 2 community level meetings lasted usually for about 2-3 hours. There was a checklist of questions for these meetings (Annex A); questions were asked to seek first hand experience. These meetings were held to determine if the proposed linkage(s) are suitable for recommendation; to explore unique biodiversity sites that can be identified as biodiversity areas in the landscape, and to determine if the chosen linkages are functional and if there is adequate local and agency support for their proposal. In essence, the proposed corridors and biodiversity areas are recognized based on the information generated through these meetings coupled with experts’ prior experience in those areas and careful analysis of GIS maps.

There was limited travel within the proposed corridors and biodiversity areas. Where possible, the team tried to visually evaluate their condition and enquire on-site about the issues and challenges for biodiversity conservation.

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It’s unique geographical position and altitudinal and climatic variations make CHAL rich in floral and faunal diversity.

3.1 Siwaliks

Including a few small patches of Terai areas in the districts of Nawalparasi and Chitwan, which fall within the landscape, the Siwaliks range comprises

11.4 percent of the total 32,068 km2 CHAL area.

An older technical report compiled by the Biodiversity Profile Project (BPP 1995a) for the Terai and Siwaliks zone, shows that this physiographic zone contains species and ecosystems of global significance. The grasslands of Chitwan are considered as being biologically outstanding and are among the last remaining patches in the Indo-Gangetic Plains.

The riverine grasslands and grassland-forest mosaics support extremely high ungulate biomass.

Saccharum spontaneum is the dominant tall grass that emerges from the silt deposited after floods retreat. This grass is the most nutritious of all grasses and provides the major food for ungulates and domestic stock, including the domestic elephants. In Chitwan, grasslands comprise about 20 percent of the park. In moist areas, Saccharum, Narenga and Themeda species form tall grass communities. In old agricultural sites, Imperata cylindrica, a short grass, occurs in almost pure stands. The diversity of grassland can be appreciated by the fact that over 40 species of grasses have been identified from the Sauraha area alone (Laurie 1978). The grasslands in recent times are increasingly invaded by scrub and forests (Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC), 2006). On the other hand, resettlement of Padampur Village Development Committee (VDC), which used to be a large enclave settlement in CNP, has increased new grasslands in the park.

Highlights of Biodiversity in CHAL 3

The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) has identified Chitwan’s grasslands as being part of one of the important ecoregions for biologically outstanding grasslands (Olson and Dinerstein 1998). Named as Terai-Duar savannas and grasslands, it extends from Dehradun, India, across Nepal’s Terai zone to the Duar grasslands of Bhutan. This type of grassland is today no more than two percent of the alluvial grasslands of Indo-Gangetic Plains, and one of the best examples of this can be seen in CNP (Dinerstein 2003).

This grassland and the adjoining riverine forest ecosystem support two of the last remaining populations of rhinoceros and tiger. There are healthy populations of several species of deer, and at least 17 species of carnivores are found in the park (Sunquist 1981). A total of 56 species of mammals is recorded in the park (DNPWC 2001), and the crude biomass estimate for ungulates in Chitwan has been reported as high as 28,076 kg/sq km, which is comparable to figures in East Africa (Seidensticker 1976). The high productivity of riverine forest ecosystem has provided this opportunity. Rhinoceros comprise much of this biomass. Other species include sambar (Cervus unicolor), chital (Axis axis), hog deer (Axis porcinus), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjack), and wild boar (Sus scrofa). In the Siwaliks and their foothills, gaur (Bos gaurus) are found in good number. The continuous belt of forest from Parsa Wildlife Reserve to the east, and Valmikinagar Wildlife Sanctuary in India to the south, has provided good habitat for healthy populations of tiger (Panthera tigris) and leopard (Panthera pardus). The tiger density is high compared to other areas of Asia (Sunquist et al. 1999).

The tiger census conducted in 1995-1996 in CNP showed the tiger population of Chitwan as 48-49 breeding animals (DNPWC 1999); the tiger census in 2005 reported 50-60 adult breeding individuals

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(DNPWC 2006); the census of 2008/2009 in CNP put the number at 91 and four adult breeding animals in Parsa Wildlife Reserve (PWR) (DNPWC 2012); and the 2010 census showed CNP to have 125 and PWR to have four breeding adults, (DNPWC 2012). These figures show a growing tiger population in CNP and surrounding forests.

In addition, CNP has a transient population of wild elephant (Elephas maximus) that visit the park from the east from time to time.

The vegetation of the lowlands of CHAL is dominated by sal forests (Shorea robusta). In CNP sal forests comprise about 70 percent of the park and are considered climax forest. Sal forests occur in almost pure stands in many situations and also in association with other trees, including Terminalia spp., Dillenia pentagyana, Syzyigium cumini, Lagerstroemia parviflora, and Phyllantus emblica. The understory consists of tall grasses or sparse growth of scrub. Riverine forest occurs along rivers, oxbow lakes and on islands in the rivers.

These deciduous forests are found in two distinct associations based on the stage of succession, the association of Acacia catechu and Dalbergia sissoo in the earlier stage, and the association of Bombax ceiba and Trewia nudiflora in the later stage.

Chitwan National Park is recognized as an Important Bird Area (IBA) of Nepal and harbors a total of 540 bird species (Baral and Inskipp 2005, Baral and Upadhyay 2006). The high diversity of birds is attributed to the diverse habitat types which consist of forests, grasslands and wetlands. The park is the stopover for many long-range migratory birds. Inskipp (1989) lists 55 breeding bird species in Chitwan, 36 of which have been classified as endangered or vulnerable. Chitwan is particularly important for several grassland species, including Bengal Florican, Grey-crowned Prinia and Slender-billed Babbler, and also for Lesser Adjutant.

There are 47 species of reptiles and nine species of amphibians reported in the park (DNPWC 2001).

Edds (1989) has recorded 120 species of fish in the Kali Gandaki/Narayani River. Fish are important food for gharial, mugger (Crocodylus palustris), otter (Lutra perspicillata), turtle, and fish-eating birds.

Chitwan National Park is recognized as a World Heritage Site for Nature for (i) being the last remaining stronghold of natural areas of high biological diversity protected from human interference; (ii) including habitats of endangered tiger, rhinoceros, gaur, gharial and Gangetic dolphin; (iii) being an outstanding and beautiful ecosystem of the Churia Valley; and (iv) enjoying the highest level of protection provided by the Government of Nepal (Sharma 1991).

The Siwaliks physiographic zone provides enormous ecological services. The stretch of the Churia hills (often called the Siwaliks) falling within Parsa Wildlife Reserve and Chitwan National Park has continued to remain as wilderness area.

Until the 1950s, the Churia area was sparsely populated. But, with increased pressure on the plains and better access, the land opened new opportunities for poor settlers. The deforestation and over harvesting of natural resources, unsustainable agriculture and currently growing trend of excavating riverbeds and hillsides for stones and boulders have accelerated soil erosion, adversely affecting the environmental condition of Churia. The Churia hills outside of CNP and PWR, especially in Makwanpur and Nawalparasi Districts, need special attention to prevent further degradation (Sharma 2012). Stabalizing the slopes of the Churia would prevent soil erosion, recharge ground water for the plains, and prevent natural disasters in terms of flash floods and deposition of soil and debris on fields. Well protected Churia forests are the best wilderness areas in Nepal, being home to a complex vegetation mix including several endemic species (BPP 1955b, Bhuju, 2000). Bhuju (2000) found in a sample study a tremendous floral diversity of over 265 vascular plant species, including rare species such as Dalbergia latifolia and one endemic species, Ormosia glauca.

Adjacent to CNP to the north, Barandabhar Forest is a narrow strip (1.8-7 km) joining CNP with the foothills of the Mahabharat Range. The area south of the East-West Highway is part of the Buffer Zone of CNP, whereas the area north of the highway is declared a protection forest.

The Barandabhar Forest and other forests in the foothills of the Mahabharat near Jutpani exhibit similar floristic and faunal composition to the typical lowland sal forest found in CNP. Sal is the dominant species together with other co-dominant tree species such as Terminalia; its second layer of tree comprises Careya arborea, Semecarpus anacardium and Dillenia pentagyana. Good forest protected against over-grazing has a rich shrub layer of various species. The forest in Barandabhar is interspersed with grasslands and wetlands. The Beeshazari Tal, a Ramsar site, in the Barandabhar

H I g H L I g H T S O F B I O D I v E R S I T y I N C H A L

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The foothills of the Mahabharat Hills including the Barandabhar Forest are the best habitats for large carnivores, including tiger and leopard and large ungulates including rhinoceros and deer.

Other wildlife includes sloth bear, primates and rodents. Several migratory and resident birds find these areas suitable habitat. The site is recognized as an Important Bird Area of Nepal, where several globally threatened species reside or pass through;

they include the Great Hornbill, Pallas’s Fish Eagle, several other eagles, vultures and storks.

It is home to about 282 bird species including the Lesser Adjutant, Great Hornbill, Grey-headed Fish Eagle and Darter (Baral and Inskipp 2005). This site serves as an important corridor for migrating birds and other wildlife.

The tropical sal forest extends only up to 300 m in elevation. The forests of riverine khair – sissoo occurring close to sal forest along the floodplains in Terai and Dun Valleys extends up to 500 m. Acacia catechu and Dalbergia sissoo form pure or inter-mixed stands and provide good habitat for wildlife of lowland plains. CHAL has a predominance of hill sal forest, which occurs between 300 and 1,000 m.

Sal is associated with other tree species including Terminalia, Anogeissus and Lagerstroemia. On dry slopes, the forest is not very rich in species, but in river gorges and ravines the number of tree species, shrubs and epiphytes increases substantially.

Orchids are abundant in ravine areas and wild mangoes and bananas together with species such as Cycas pectinata, Gnetum montanumm, and Cyathea spinolosa occur in unique combination (Department of Forests (DoF), 2002).

3.2 Midhills

The midhills occupy 37.8 percent of CHAL and have a sub-tropical to temperate monsoonal climate and are characterized by intensive farming on hillside terraces. The forest of Schima-Castanopsis is an important forest in the Mahabharat Hills between 1,000 and 2,000 m. Schima wallichii is distributed over all of central Nepal, east of the Kali Gandaki River. Schima wallichii occurs in association with Castanopsis indica at lower elevation (1000-2,000

m) and with Castanopsis tribuloides at higher elevations (1,500-2,000 m); at times both species can be found in the same forest as their altitudinal distribution is not sharply differentiated (DoF 2002). This altitudinal zone is under intense use for terraced agriculture and human settlement, often referred to as one of the world’s agricultural wonders. As a result the Schima-Castanopsis forests are denuded near settlements or encroached for agriculture. Community forest management, in recent times, has helped to restore some of the denuded forests in some areas.

BPP (1995a) has compiled a list of flowering plants in Central Nepal across different physiographic zones and has recorded high numbers of flowering plants in the midhills. Schima-Castanopsis is well known for hosting laughing thrushes, barbets and bulbuls, among other birds. The forest provides suitable habitat for leopard, clouded leopard and a number of small mammals.

Alnus nepalensis (found between 500 and 2,700 m) forms dense forest along moist sites, especially in ravines, river banks and areas of fresh landslides. The species is liked by villagers for timber and fuel wood because it occurs in waste lands such as ravines and does not require much effort to grow. On the higher reaches of CHAL, above 2,000 m extending up to 2,500 m, lower temperate oak forest appears. Dense oak forests with hanging moss are seen on the hill tops and provide valuable fodder and fuelwood inputs to villagers. Quercus langinosa, Q. incana and Q. lamellose in association with Rhododendron arboream and a number of lauraceous plants occur in this type of forest. Among birds, sibia, blackbirds and laughing thrushes are typical. An earlier study (Basnet et al. 2000) has concluded that the Madi River Valley, of all the river valleys, carries a high plant diversity in terms of species and high tree density in terms of ratio between tree density and basal area. The Madi Valley, similarly, has been found to have a high altitudinal gradient and habitat diversity and is less disturbed and provides large midhill forest blocks.

Midhills mammals include Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), rhesus macaque (Macacca mullata), jackal (Canis aureus), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus), hanuman languor (Presbytes entellus), jungle cat (Felis chaus), common leopard (Panthera pardus), Himalayan goral (Naemorhedus goral) and serow (Capricornis sumantraensis).

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3.3 Mountains

The mountains of CHAL are characterized by high steep slopes, deep gorges and cold temperate climates. They harbor luxuriant natural conifer forests in some locations. Areas located above 4,000 m above sea level comprise sub-alpine and alpine climates and associated vegetation types.

Summer grazing pastures are common and high altitude plant species adapted to extremes of cold and desiccation are found in higher elevations.

Mountains comprise 50.8 percent of CHAL area.

Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) dominates the landscape in this category. Two distinct climatic regions (rainfall, 3000 mm; <500 mm) fall within a span of 120km and altitudes of 1,000- 8,000 m. The ACA initiated in 1986 as a pilot project in an area of 200 sq. km was expanded, due to tremendous interest among local communities, to an area of 7,629 sq. km covering 57 VDCS in five districts (Bajracharya 1995, National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC) 2008). The ACA is the largest protected area in Nepal. Gazetted in 1992, it is managed on the concept of Integrated Conservation and Development (ICDP). The northern range of the landscape harbors viable populations of argali (Ovis ammon), blue sheep (Psudois nayur) and Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus). The range of blue sheep extends south to Annapurna and Manaslu. The upper elevations include habitats of snow leopard (Uncia uncia), and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), while serow (Capricornis sumatraensis) and goral (Nemorhaedus goral) ranges extend further south.

The Tibetan wolf (Canis lupus) and lynx (Felis lynx) are other predators found in these ranges.

ACA is recognized as an Important Bird Area of Nepal and a total of 486 birds have been reported there (Baral and Inskipp 2005). The ACA Management Plan lists 102 mammals, 39 reptiles and 23 amphibians. Being situated at the divide of the Eastern and Western Himalaya, the Kali Gandaki gorge is a recognized corridor for migrating birds. The Kali Gandaki River originates in Nepal near Tibet, flows southward through the Mustang Basin, crosses the Himalayas in a gorge, and descends to the lowlands of Nepal. The total length in the Nepalese territory is about 300km.

Compared to other rivers, the Kali Valley is the deepest gorge, at 5,486m. The gorge provides a natural east-west barrier for plants and animals.

It provides an ideal site for research to understand the effects of barriers on the distribution of species and other associated factors.

Manaslu CA and Langtang NP harbor similar biodiversity of the northern Nepal. Shivapuri Nagarjun NP represents the unique biodiversity of the midhills of Nepal.

Dobremez (1996, cited in HMGN/MoFSC 2002) has described an altitudinal distribution of flora of central Nepal. The eleven ecological levels from lower tropical level (below 500 m) to highest level (above 5,000 m) are represented in CHAL.

The BPP (1995a) has shown the distribution of flowering plants (Table 3.1), which shows high numbers of flowering plants in the midhills.

Diversity of orchids is high, especially seen in the Panchase Hills, where Kaski, Parbat and Syangja District boundaries meet (DoF 2012c).

Similarly, 283 Bryophytes and 97 Pteridophytes are recorded from Central Nepal. BPP (1995a) lists a further twelve gymnosperms in CNP and ACA.

Other flora include lichens and fungi; algae are little known in CHAL.

Because of the high floral and ecosystem diversity, CHAL also has equally high faunal diversity. Mammals are distributed in Nepal’s three physiographic zones as 56 species in the Terai-Siwaliks (DNPWC 2001), 32 species in the midhills, and 30 species in the highlands (Suwal and Verheuugt 1995). More recent tabulation by altitude by Baral and Shah (2008) has reported 79 mammals below 1,000 m, 52 between 1,000 and 3,000 m, and 20 above 3,000 m. A separate listing of mammals for CHAL is not available.

Table 3.1 Distribution of Flowering Plants in Different Physiographic Zones in the Central Region of Nepal

Zone No. of Plants

High Himalaya (Nival) 181

High Mountain (Alpine and sub-alpine) 1.602

Midhills (Temperate and sub-tropical) 2,727

Silwalik and Terai 1,420

Total 5,930

Source: (Biodiversity Profiles Project 1995a)

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There are numerous natural lakes and man made ponds and reservoirs in the Gandaki Basin. Pokhara Valley contains nine lakes, namely Fewa (443 ha), Begnas (373 ha), Rupa (115 ha), Khaste (13.57 ha), Dipang (8.9 ha), Gunde (4.98 ha), Neurani (2.8 ha), Maidi (1.17 ha) and Nandi. The cluster of lakes that lies in the Gosaikunda-Naukunda Lake area, Tilicho in Manang, and Beeshazari Tal in Chitwan are important lakes in CHAL. Box 4.1 lists some ponds and water bodies reported during the field trip. This is not an exhaustive list and further study would be required to understand wetland ecosystems in CHAL.

Wetland ecosystems are recognized as an important category of ecosystems that have rich biological diversity and are known to support more than 200,000 waterfowl in Nepal during

Wetlands of CHAL4

Nuwakot: Suryakund, Sagarkund, Baldehital

Rasuwa: Gosainkund, Bhairavkund, Surajkund, Saraswotikund, Parbatikund, Ganeshkund, Jalesworkund

Gorkha: Kalchhuman (1.5 km long), Narad Kund, Dudhpokhari, Bhulbhulekhar, Birendra Chhosong, Pushkar Tirtha, Ranipokhari, Manepani

Lamjung: Dudhpokhari, Mamepokhari, Ilampokhari, Barhapokhari

Kaski: Fewa, Begnas, Rupa, Khaste, Dipang, Gunde, Neurani, Maidi, Nandi lakes and Shanti Kund

Mustang: Damodar Kund, Dhumba Tal, Titi Tal, Sekong Tal

Baglung: Gajako Dah (Damek), Rudratal, Bobang, Nildah (Bhakunde)

Nawalparasi: Small lakes above Daunne

Arghakhanchi: Thadadah, Senglengdah, Gahachaurdah, Paneradah

Palpa: Satyabati Tal, Suke, Nandan, Sitakund

Syangja: Andhaandhi Dah, Chhangchhangdi

Manang: Tilicho Lake, Gangapurna Lake, Mringchho Lake, Ngyamcho, Ponkar, Himlung Lake, Kecho Lake

Chitwan: Satrahazar Tal, Beeshazari Tal, Sattaishazar Tal, Atthaishazar Tal, Mundatal, Devital, Lamital, Tamorghaila Tal, Kasaratal, Nandbahuju Tal, Anjuratal, Manjuratal, Gaduwatal, Anjanatal, Parshuram Kund, Baikuntha Kund the peak period of migration, between December and February (MoFSC 2002). Although surveys of wetlands of the country in all three physiographic zones have been conducted, it is still an area with insufficient information. A detailed inventory of wetlands carried out in Terai (International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) - Nepal 1996) has reported 32 wetland sites in the lowlands of CHAL: nine in Nawalparasi and 23 in Chitwan District. However, a recent study on the wetlands of CNP and its Buffer Zone has shown 44 wetlands in these areas alone (J. B. Karki, Pers.

Com, 17 July 2012) (Box 4.2). In higher areas, the Goisankunda–Naukunda Lake system (4,054– 4,609 m asl) spread across 54 ha through its 16 interconnected lakes, providing critical habitat for a number of rare and endemic plants and animals (Karki et al. 2005).

Natural Lakes Reported from the Gandaki BasinBOX 4.1

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