AFMAN36-2236_(12_Nov_2003).pdf

NOTICE: This publication is available digitally on the AFDPO WWW site at:

http://www.e-publishing.af.mil.

BY ORDER OF THE

SECRETARY OF THE AIR FORCE

AIR FORCE MANUAL 36-2236

12 NOVEMBER 2003

Personnel

GUIDEBOOK FOR AIR FORCE INSTRUCTORS

OPR: HQ AETC/ED

(HQ AU/CFS, Dr M. Jenkins)

Certified by: HQ AETC/ED (Lt Gen D. Lamontagne)

Supersedes AFMAN 36-2236, 15 September 1994

Pages: 461 Distribution: F

This training manual presents basic teaching principles and their application in Air Force teacher-learning situations. It implements both AFPD 36-22, Military Training, and AFPD 36-23, Military Education. The text addresses how people learn and how they communicate. It discusses various teaching methods and techniques, and ways to evaluate learning and the reasons for such evaluation. The manual is for instruc-tors engaged in on-the-job training (OJT) and informal instruction as well as those assigned to Air Force formal schools. Send comments and suggested improvements on AF Form 847, Recommendation for Change of Publication, through channels, to HQ AU/CFS, 60 Shumacher Street, Maxwell AFB AL 36112-5337. The use of a name or trademark of any specific manufacturer, commercial product, com-modity, or service in this publication does not imply endorsement by the Air Force. Maintain and dispose of records created as a result of processes prescribed in this publication in accordance with AFMAN 37-139, Records Disposition Schedule.

SUMMARY OF REVISIONS

This document is substantially revised and must be completely reviewed.

This revision adds a chapter on the experiential method of instruction and updates the examples for each teaching method.

Chapter 1—THE AIR FORCE INSTRUCTOR 20

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Curriculum Planning

Figure 1.1. Air Force Model for Instructional Systems Development

1.3. Instructor Skills Useful In Other Duties

1.4. The Air Force Approach To Academic Instruction

1.5. Overview of Manual

http://www.e-publishing.af.mil

2 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

1.6. Summary

Chapter 2—LEARNING THEORY 24

2.1. Introduction

2.2. A Historical View

2.3. Combining the Approaches

Figure 2.1. Levels of Knowledge and Understanding

Figure 2.2. Levels of Attitude and Values

Figure 2.3. Levels of Skill

2.4. Summary

Chapter 3—WRITING STUDENT-CENTERED OBJECTIVES AND TESTS 29

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Planning For Student-Centered Outcomes

Table 3.1. Cognitive Taxonomy

Table 3.2. Types of Learning

Figure 3.1. Air Force Proficiency Code

Figure 3.2. Comparison of Taxonomies of Learning Outcomes

3.3. Writing Lesson Objectives:

Figure 3.3. Sample Test Item

3.4. Summary:

Chapter 4—THE LEVEL-OF-LEARNING LESSON PLANNING PROCESS 39

Section 4A Overview 39

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Bloom's Cognitive Taxonomy

Figure 4.1. Key Words for Knowledge, Comprehension, and Application Levels

Section 4B Learning Levels 40

4.3. Knowledge

4.4. Comprehension:

Figure 4.2. Relationship Between Factory Production and Unemployment

4.5. Application

AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 3

Section 4C Level-of-Learning Objectives 43

4.6. Overview

4.7. Student Centeredness

4.8. LOL

4.9. Specific Subject

4.10. Example of an LOL Objective:

Figure 4.3. Example Level-of-Learning Objectives

Section 4D Samples of Behavior 45

4.11. Overview

4.12. Defining a Sample of Behavior:

Figure 4.4. Behavioral Verbs

Figure 4.5. Recall of Information

Figure 4.6. Understanding Information

Figure 4.7. Applying Information

4.13. Considerations in Writing Samples of Behavior:

4.14. Determining What To Sample

Figure 4.8. Air Force Curriculum

4.15. Summary

Chapter 5—WRITING CRITERION OBJECTIVES 51

Section 5A Introduction 51

5.1. Overview

5.2. Relationship Between Samples of Behavior and Criterion Objectives

Figure 5.1. A Comparison of Samples of Behavior and Criterion Objectives

Section 5B Constructing Criterion Objectives 52

5.3. Importance of Construction

5.4. Essential Elements

Figure 5.2. Essential Elements of a Criterion Objective

5.5. Formats

Figure 5.3. Formats for Criterion Objectives

5.6. Mastery Learning

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5.7. Content Communicated by the Criterion Objective

Figure 5.4. Example 1 of a Criterion Objective

Figure 5.5. Example 2 of a Criterion Objective

Figure 5.6. Example 3 of a Criterion Objective

Figure 5.7. Example 4 of a Criterion Objective

Figure 5.8. Example 5 of a Criterion Objective

Figure 5.9. Example 6 of a Criterion Objective

Figure 5.10. Example 7 of a Criterion Objective

Figure 5.11. Example 8 of a Criterion Objective

5.8. Performance

5.9. The Action Verb

Figure 5.12. Verb Descriptors of Student Performance (Criterion Objectives)

5.10. Object of the Action:

5.11. Common Errors

5.12. Summary

Section 5C Standards 65

5.13. Overview

5.14. Types of Standards

5.15. Common Errors

Section 5D Planning Tools 69

5.16. Task Steps As Planning Tools:

Figure 5.13. Task Analysis of a Criterion Objective

Figure 5.14. Sample Instruction Designs For a Task Analysis of a Criterion Objective

5.17. Summary

Figure 5.15. Criterion Objective Writer's Checklist

Chapter 6—DEVELOPING THE LESSON PLAN 74

6.1. The Importance of a Lesson Plan:

6.2. Determining the Objective

6.3. Researching the Topic

6.4. Selecting Instructional Methods

AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 5

6.5. Lesson Planning Format

Figure 6.1. Recommended Content and Components of a Lesson Plan

6.6. Organizing the Lesson

Figure 6.2. Outline of a Lesson on Nonverbal Communication

6.7. The Strategy Statement:

Figure 6.3. Strategy Statement—Example 1

Figure 6.4. Strategy Statement—Example 2

Figure 6.5. Strategy Statement—Example 3

6.8. Choosing Support Material:

Figure 6.6. Choosing Appropriate Examples

6.9. Beginning and Ending the Lesson

6.10. Preparing The Final Outline:

Figure 6.7. Sample Keyword Outline – Nonverbal Communication

6.11. Summary

Chapter 7—DEVELOPING KNOWLEDGE-LEVEL LESSONS 97

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Appropriateness of Classroom Instruction at the Knowledge Level

7.3. Planning Knowledge-Level Lessons

7.4. Developing the Teaching Outline

Figure 7.1. Teaching Outline—Example 1

Figure 7.2. Teaching Outline—Example 2

Figure 7.3. Teaching Outline—Example 3

7.5. Support Material:

7.6. Teaching the Lesson

7.7. Summary

Chapter 8—DEVELOPING COMPREHENSION-LEVEL CONCEPT AND PRINCIPLE

LESSONS 105

8.1. Introduction

8.2. The Teaching of Concepts

8.3. Organizing a Concept Teaching Plan

8.4. Testing Concept Learning

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8.5. Sample Concept Teaching Plans (Part I):

Figure 8.1. Sample Part I Lesson Plan

Figure 8.2. Sample Lesson Plan Cover Sheet

8.6. The Teaching of Principles

8.7. Logical Lesson Planning

8.8. Testing Principle Learning:

8.9. Sample Plans for Teaching Principles (Part I—Cover Sheet)

Figure 8.3. Topical Pattern Sample

Figure 8.4. Sample Multi-Objective Plan

Figure 8.5. Sample Problem-Solution Organizational Pattern

Figure 8.6. Sample Cause-Effect Organizational Pattern

Figure 8.7. Sample Pro-Con Plus One Organizational Pattern

8.10. Sampling Achievement of the Objective

Figure 8.8. Sample 1—Topical Pattern

Figure 8.9. Sample 2—Parallel Principles

Figure 8.10. Sample 3—Problem-Solution Pattern

Figure 8.11. Sample 4—Cause-Effect Pattern

Figure 8.12. Sample 5—Pro-Con Plus One Pattern

8.11. The Comprehension-Level Summary

Figure 8.13. Comprehension-Level Summary

8.12. Summary

Chapter 9—DEVELOPING HIGHER-LEVEL COGNITIVE LESSONS 124

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Higher Levels of Cognitive Learning:

Figure 9.1. Instructional Objectives at the Application Level

Figure 9.2. Instructional Objectives at the Analysis Level

Figure 9.3. Instructional Objectives at the Synthesis Level

Figure 9.4. Instructional Objectives at the Evaluation Level

9.3. Principles of Teaching and Learning at the Higher Levels

9.4. Lesson Planning

AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 7

9.5. Summary

Chapter 10—WRITING AND MEASURING AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVES 132

10.1. Introduction

10.2. A Structure For Attitude Development—The Affective Taxonomy

Figure 10.1. Krathwohl's Affective Taxonomy

10.3. Lesson Planning for Affective Development

Table 10.1. Cognitive and Affective Consequences

10.4. Relationship of Affective Domain to Other Domains

10.5. Affective Objectives Can be Specified and Measured

10.6. Techniques for Specifying and Measuring Affective Objectives

Figure 10.2. Lesson Objective and Purpose Statement

Figure 10.3. Lesson Objective and Outline of Main Teaching Points

10.7. Similarity of Cognitive and Affective Learning Outcomes

10.8. Interpreting and Modifying Criterion Objectives

Figure 10.4. Suggested Changes to Affective Objectives

10.9. Stating Purely Affective Objectives

Figure 10.5. Main Point Sample

Figure 10.6. Samples of Behavior

Figure 10.7. Sample Lesson Plan

10.10. Measuring Changes In Student Attitudes:

10.11. Using Published Attitude Scales

10.12. Making Our Own Attitude Assessment Scale

10.13. Pretest-Posttest Design

Figure 10.8. Attitude Test—Pretest-Posttest Design

Figure 10.9. Multiple-Choice Format

10.14. Measuring Attitude Changes Following the Experience

Figure 10.10. End-of-Course Critique—General

Figure 10.11. End-of-Course Critique—Specific

Figure 10.12. Sample School Criterion Objective

Figure 10.13. Either-Or Format

8 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 10.14. Open-Ended Question Format

10.15. Dealing With the Higher Affective Levels

10.16. Which Affective Measure Should Be Used?

10.17. Summary

Chapter 11—USING QUESTIONS FOR LEARNING 148

11.1. Introduction

11.2. The Starting Point

11.3. Determine Purpose

11.4. Questions Categorized By Direction

11.5. Effective Questioning Techniques

11.6. Summary

Chapter 12—SURVEY OF TEACHING METHODS 154

12.1. Introduction

12.2. Presentational Methods

12.3. Student Verbal Interaction Methods

12.4. Application Methods

12.5. Summary

Chapter 13—THE TEACHING LECTURE METHOD 159

13.1. Introduction

13.2. Types of Lectures

13.3. Other Types of Oral Presentations

13.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Lecture Method

13.5. Preparing the Lecture

13.6. Presenting the Lecture

Figure 13.1. Guidelines for Manuscript Lessons

13.7. Summary:

Chapter 14—THE GUIDED DISCUSSION METHOD 172

14.1. Introduction

14.2. Selection and Planning Factors

14.3. Organizing the Guided Discussion

14.4. Conducting a Guided Discussion

AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 9

14.5. Post-Discussion Actions

14.6. Summary

Chapter 15—THE CASE STUDY METHOD 181

15.1. Introduction

15.2. Using Case Studies

15.3. Teaching Value and Limitations:

15.4. Typical Case Applications

15.5. Types of Cases

15.6. Mode of Presentation:

15.7. Case Methodology

Figure 15.1. Lesson Plan Process

15.8. Summary

Chapter 16—THE TEACHING INTERVIEW METHOD 191

16.1. Introduction

16.2. Background:

16.3. Uses of the Teaching Interview

16.4. Initial Planning Factors

16.5. Coordination

16.6. The Interview Lesson:

16.7. Introducing the Interview Lesson

16.8. Conducting the Interview

16.9. Ending the Interview

16.10. Sample Lesson Plan for a Teaching Interview

16.11. Summary

Chapter 17—THE DEMONSTRATION-PERFORMANCE METHOD 197

17.1. Introduction:

17.2. Planning and Developing a D-P Lesson

17.3. Factors to Consider When Using the D-P Method:

17.4. The Sample D-P Lesson Plan:

17.5. Summary

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Chapter 18—USING GAMES FOR LEARNING 201

18.1. Introduction

18.2. Benefits of Using Games

18.3. Classifying Games

18.4. Various Games for Classroom Use

18.5. Designing a Game

18.6. Writing Game Questions

18.7. Writing a Game Lesson Plan

18.8. Administering the Game

18.9. Cautions on Using Games

18.10. General Considerations When Using Games

18.11. Dr. Sivasailam Thiagarajan's Considerations

Figure 18.1. Dr. Thiagarajan's Experiential Checklist

18.12. Summary

Chapter 19—SELECTING TEACHING METHODS 207

19.1. Introduction

19.2. Assumptions

Table 19.1. Teaching Methods Grid or Decision Table

19.3. Definition of Terms

19.4. Recommendations for Teaching Methods

19.5. Lecture:

19.6. Indirect Discourse:

19.7. Demonstration-Performance:

19.8. Reading:

19.9. Self-Paced Methods:

19.10. Questioning:

19.11. Nondirected Discussion:

19.12. Guided Discussion:

19.13. Practical Exercises—Individual Projects:

19.14. Practical Exercises—Field Trips:

19.15. Practical Exercises—Experiential

19.16. Case Studies:

AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 11

19.17. Summary

Chapter 20—INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA 227

20.1. Introduction

20.2. Instructional Aids:

20.3. Selecting Instructional Aids

20.4. Types of Instructional Aids

20.5. Proofreading

20.6. Distance Learning

20.7. Summary

Chapter 21—INTRODUCTION TO EVALUATION 231

21.1. Introduction

21.2. Nature of Evaluation

21.3. How We Evaluate

21.4. Characteristics of Evaluation

21.5. Determining Means of Measurement

21.6. Reasons for Evaluation

21.7. Nature of Required Behavior:

21.8. Availability of Time and Facilities

21.9. Availability of Qualified Faculty:

21.10. Summary

Chapter 22—CONSTRUCTING AND ADMINISTERING CLASSROOM TESTS 239

22.1. Introduction

22.2. Suggestions for Preparing Any Test Item

22.3. Selection Test Items

Table 22.1. Comparison Between the Two Major Types of Test Questions

22.4. Multiple-Choice Items

Figure 22.1. Stems

Figure 22.2. Alternatives

Figure 22.3. Multiple-Choice Alternatives

Figure 22.4. Stem Written As a Question

Figure 22.5. Stem Written As an Incomplete Statement

12 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 22.6. Multiple Response

Figure 22.7. Definition

Figure 22.8. Stem Supplemented by an Illustration

Figure 22.9. The Negative Variety

Figure 22.10. Association

Figure 22.11. Problem-Situation

Figure 22.12. Example of a Problem-Situation Format

Figure 22.13. Checklist for Writing Multiple-Choice Items

Figure 22.14. Multiple-Choice Test Item

Figure 22.15. Corrected Item

22.5. Matching Test Items

Figure 22.16. Example of Equal Columns

Figure 22.17. Example of Unequal Columns

Figure 22.18. Example of Inference Matching

Figure 22.19. Example of Cause-and-Effect Matching

Figure 22.20. Example of Coded Alternatives for Scientific Reasoning

Figure 22.21. Sample Matching Test Item

Figure 22.22. Checklist for Writing Matching Test Items

Figure 22.23. Questions to Ask

Figure 22.24. Corrected Sample Matching Test

22.6. True-False Items

Figure 22.25. Declarative Statement

Figure 22.26. Cluster

Figure 22.27. Statement with Illustration

Figure 22.28. Double True-False

Figure 22.29. Checklist for Writing True-False Items

Figure 22.30. Sample True-False Item

Figure 22.31. Corrected Item

22.7. Supply Test Items

22.8. Completion Items

AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 13

Figure 22.32. Example 1 – Incomplete Statement

Figure 22.33. Example 2 – Sentence or Paragraph Completion

22.9. Checklist for Writing Completion Items

Figure 22.34. Checklist for Writing Completion Items

Figure 22.35. Sample Item

Figure 22.36. Corrected Item

22.10. Short-Answer Items

Figure 22.37. Direct Question Example

Figure 22.38. Association

Figure 22.39. Short Explanation Example

Figure 22.40. List Example

Figure 22.41. Picture or Diagram Example

22.11. Essay Items

Figure 22.42. Guided Essay Item

22.12. Checklist for Writing Essay or Short Answer Questions

Figure 22.43. Checklist for Writing Short-Answer and Essay Items

Figure 22.44. Short Answer or Essay Item

Figure 22.45. Corrected Essay Test Item

22.13. Assembling the Test

22.14. Administering the Test

22.15. Scoring Supply Items

22.16. Scoring Essay Test Items

Figure 22.46. Sample Essay Test Question

Figure 22.47. Sample Scoring Key for Essay Test Items

22.17. Summary

Chapter 23—MEASURING LEARNING OUTCOMES 272

23.1. Introduction

23.2. Overview and Review

Figure 23.1. Sample Knowledge-Level Test Question

Figure 23.2. Sample Comprehension-Level Test Question

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Figure 23.3. Sample Test Questions at the Comprehension Level

23.3. Test-Writing Process

23.4. Summary

Chapter 24—EVALUATION BY RATING 278

24.1. Introduction

Figure 24.1. Rating Scale

24.2. Rating Methods

Figure 24.2. Descriptive Scale for Rating Student Performance

Figure 24.3. Examples of Typical Forms of the Graphic Scale

Figure 24.4. Checklist for Rating Proficiency in Instrument Flying

Figure 24.5. Product Scale

Figure 24.6. Single Block of Forced-Choice Instrument

24.3. Constructing the Rating Device

Figure 24.7. Example of a Rating System for Two Duty Assignments

24.4. Common Rating Errors

24.5. Classifying Rating Errors

Figure 24.8. Error of Central Tendency

Figure 24.9. Error of Standards

Figure 24.10. Halo or Horns Error

Figure 24.11. Logical Error Ratings

24.6. Improving Ratings

24.7. Summary

Chapter 25—CRITERION-REFERENCED EVALUATION 292

25.1. Introduction

25.2. A CRT Reporting Format

Figure 25.1. Simple Reporting Format for CRT Test Data

Figure 25.2. Detailed Reporting Format for CRT Data

Figure 25.3. Summary Table of Mastery or Nonmastery by Curriculum Objectives

25.3. CRT Item Analysis

Figure 25.4. Ease Index Formula

AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 15

Figure 25.5. Percent of Correct Responses to Test Items

25.4. Group CRT Data as a Management Tool

25.5. Characteristics of CRT Evaluation

Figure 25.6. Three Usable Approaches to Determine Validity

Figure 25.7. Possible Problems Causing Lack of Differentiation

25.6. Summary

Chapter 26—NORM-REFERENCED ANALYSIS 303

Section 26A Overview 303

26.1. Introduction

Section 26B Grading Methods 303

26.2. Overview

Figure 26.1. Tabulation of a Frequency Distribution

26.3. Rank-Order Grades

Figure 26.2. Computation of Rank-Order Grades

26.4. Percentile-Rank Grades

Table 26.1. Computation of Percentile-Rank Grade

26.5. Percentile-Group Grades

Table 26.2. Computation of Several Percentile-Group Grades with Different Percentage Groupings

26.6. Arithmetic Mean

26.7. Standard Deviation

Table 26.3. Computation of Mean, Standard Deviation, Standard Scores, and T-Scores

26.8. Standard Score

26.9. T-Scores

26.10. Grading Methods Compared

Figure 26.3. Raw Scores Made by Two Students

Figure 26.4. Rank-Order Scores Made by Same Two Students

Figure 26.5. Percentile-Rank Scores Made by Same Two Students

Figure 26.6. T-Score Grades Made by Same Two Students

Figure 26.7. Comparison of Grading Methods

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Figure 26.8. Weighted Scores Made by Same Two Students

Section 26C Effectiveness of Individual Test Items 317

26.11. Ease Index of Test Items

26.12. Simple Formula for Ease Index

Figure 26.9. Distribution of Responses to Test Item

26.13. Interpreting the Ease Index:

26.14. Differentiation Index (DI) of Test Items

26.15. Computing Differentiation Index

26.16. Interpreting the Differentiation Index

26.17. Analyzing All Responses To a Test Item

Figure 26.10. Analysis of All Responses To a Test Item

26.18. Summary

Chapter 27—USING FEEDBACK IN THE CLASSROOM 323

27.1. Introduction:

27.2. Definition and Theory

27.3. Giving Feedback to Students

27.4. Characteristics of Effective Feedback:

27.5. Methods of Giving Feedback

Figure 27.1. Ground Rules To Aid the Instructor in Giving Feedback

27.6. Summary

Chapter 28—STUDENT DIFFERENCES 329

28.1. Introduction

28.2. Match the Method to the Student

28.3. Match Students to the Planned Learning Experience

28.4. Combining the Two Approaches

28.5. Group Differences

28.6. Individual Differences

Figure 28.1. Techniques for Motivating Students

Figure 28.2. Benefits Associated With Grading System

Figure 28.3. Elements Found in Learning Contracts

Figure 28.4. Personalized Instruction

AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 17

28.7. Summary

Chapter 29—THE DYNAMICS OF SMALL LEARNING GROUPS 342

Section 29A Overview 342

29.1. Introduction

29.2. Small Learning Group Defined

Section 29B Small-Group Learning Influences 342

29.3. Benefits of Small-Group Learning

29.4. Norms

29.5. Cohesiveness

29.6. Increasing Cohesiveness

29.7. Consensus

Section 29C Roles of Class Members and Instructors 345

29.8. Class Member Roles

29.9. Dealing with Nonproductive Roles

29.10. Dealing with Nonproductive Groups

29.11. Student Needs

29.12. The Instructor As Leader

Figure 29.1. Instructor Task and Maintenance Roles

29.13. Summary

Chapter 30—THE INSTRUCTOR AS A HELPER 350

Section 30A Overview 350

30.1. Introduction

30.2. Counseling Defined

30.3. Counseling as a Process

30.4. The Helping Relationship

30.5. Improvement or Change in Student Behavior

30.6. Student Requests for Assistance

Section 30B The Helping Relationship 351

30.7. Importance of the Helping Relationship

30.8. The Counseling Environment

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30.9. Stages of a Helping Interview

30.10. Instructor Attitudes

30.11. Interviewing Skills

Section 30C Counseling Approaches 355

30.12. Overview

30.13. Cognitive Approach

30.14. Behavioral Approach

30.15. Affective Approach

Section 30D Referrals and Communications 358

30.16. Referral

30.17. Communications Between Instructors and Students in a Counseling Environment: 359

30.18. Summary

Chapter 31—SELF-CONCEPT 361

31.1. Introduction

31.2. Description of the Self-Concept

31.3. Formation of the Academic Self-Concept

31.4. Self-Concept Defense Mechanisms

31.5. Enhancing the Self-Concept:

31.6. Suggestions for Improving Self-Concepts:

31.7. Summary

AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 19

Attachment 1—GLOSSARY OF REFERENCES AND SUPPORTING INFORMATION 368

Attachment 2—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR FORMAL LECTURE METHOD 389

Attachment 3—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR INFORMAL LECTURE METHOD 396

Attachment 4—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR GUIDED DISCUSSION METHOD

PROBLEM-SOLUTION PATTERN 404

Attachment 5—EXAMPLES OF CASE METHOD OBJECTIVES WITH CASE

ELEMENTS 412

Attachment 6—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR CASE STUDY METHOD

PROBLEM-SOLUTION PATTERN 414

Attachment 7—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR CASE STUDY METHOD

TOPICAL PATTERN 425

Attachment 8—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHING INTERVIEW 434

Attachment 9—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR DEMONSTRATION-PERFORMANCE

METHOD 442

Attachment 10—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR METHOD OF INSTRUCTION

LEARNING GAME 449

Attachment 11—FEEDBACK FOR STUDENT SPEAKING 458

Attachment 12—GUIDELINES FOR PROVIDING FEEDBACK ON STUDENT WRITING 460

20 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Chapter 1

THE AIR FORCE INSTRUCTOR

1.1. Introduction. This manual provides the practical information needed to teach adult students. While it applies to most adult education situations, the emphasis is on a military setting. The manual was written and tested at the Air Force's Academic Instructor School at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama.

1.1.1. As a new instructor, you will find the manual useful because it summarizes the best of what experts in education have written. If you have been to a library for material on teaching recently, you were probably bewildered by the array of topics and the number of specialized texts.

1.1.2. This manual concentrates on the "academic" classroom. While it is hard to clearly distinguish between technical and academic instruction, you might find the following comparison useful. Techni-cal instruction normally includes a much higher proportion of the full range of theory and skills the graduate will need. When technical students are tested, the instructor can be sure of what they can do;

the instructor has "proof" they have mastered the course material. In academic instruction, the course usually has a more general range of possible skills, objectives, and content. Unlike technical instruc-tion, the course often has no "cap," and students are encouraged to go beyond the minimum stated objectives. Instead of having technical instruction's "proof" of learning, the academic classroom often has only samples of learning as evidence. Instructors must often be satisfied with a sampling process when designing individual class periods and evaluating student achievement. The process of sampling is further discussed in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 (planning lessons) and Chapter 21 through Chapter 25 (evaluation).

NOTE: Do not expect to learn everything you need to know about teaching solely from a manual. Exten-sive as this manual may appear, it cannot provide you with the final stages of the process—teaching and being judged on your teaching skills. Even experienced instructors can profit from constructive feed-back—from other teachers and students—on their lesson preparation and presentation.

1.2. Curriculum Planning. The official Air Force process for curriculum planning is Instructional Sys-tem Development (ISD). ISD is a deliberate and orderly but flexible process for planning, developing, and managing high quality instructional programs. It is a sound approach which has been successful in a vari-ety of civilian and military contexts. Figure 1.1. is a model of the functions and phases of ISD. The five functions of ISD are: management, support, administration, delivery, and evaluation. The four phases in the ISD process are: analysis, design, development, and implementation. All of the functions and phases occur within a quality environment that has both external and internal constraints imposed upon it.

AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 21

Figure 1.1. Air Force Model for Instructional Systems Development.

1.2.1. These functions and phases are described in detail in AFMAN 36-2234, Instructional Systems Development, and AFH 36-2235, Information for Designers of Instructional Systems, Volumes 1 through 11. This does not duplicate these publications but complements them by spelling out the instructor's tasks and responsibilities related to classroom work. Use AFMAN 36-2234 and AFH 36-2235 when planning curriculum.

1.2.2. The phases in the ISD process are used as an organizing theme in this manual. Understanding the four phases will help you see how your efforts fit into the total curriculum or "instructional sys-tem" for your school or course. When planning individual lessons, be aware of how the school deter-mined the objectives and join in the process of validating them. When evaluation results are in, study them for possible use in modifying the course. Not all instructors have the same degree of involve-ment in curriculum planning. Nor is it intended that reviewing this manual would qualify you as an ISD specialist. Courses for specialists in ISD more fully explain the principles and techniques pre-sented in AFMAN 36-2234 and AFH 36-2235.

1.3. Instructor Skills Useful In Other Duties. Military personnel often comment on the value of instructor training for more general duties as an NCO or an officer. Air Force supervisors, like instructors, must give briefings, communicate in groups, counsel subordinates, and evaluate performance. Students or graduates of the resident course often comment on the value of areas such as counseling and human rela-tions in assignments other than instructing. While you may find material in this manual helps develop such skills, it is included primarily because it is necessary for the successful instructor.

1.4. The Air Force Approach To Academic Instruction. A major theme of this manual is the focus on the students, rather than the instructors or the subject matter. This focus requires student-centered objec-tives and conscious attention to how the students react to the instruction received. For efficient instruc-tion, students need feedback that reinforces learning while identifying and correcting errors. Students

22 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

need the opportunity to try what has been taught. Too often, instruction is limited to the delivery of infor-mation, either through reading assignments, lectures, films, or type 0 and type 1 computer-based training.

Academic instruction should allow adult learners to practice what has been taught, receive feedback on their performance, and incorporate improvement as they move on to new material.

1.4.1. Evidence of Successful Teaching. In the approach presented in this manual, the only accept-able evidence that successful teaching has taken place comes from indications of change in student behavior. As important as good texts, lectures, and audiovisual materials are, they are only part of the process. At least as important is feedback to the student in the form of encouragement, comments on written papers, correction of mistakes, and similar teaching activities. Instructors must plan opportu-nities for observing student work so they can provide timely feedback. Feedback in technical courses is common but is often overlooked in academic classrooms. In addition to feedback from the instruc-tor, a well-designed course can include features such as self-tests and evaluation checklists that allow "self-correction" by the students.

1.4.2. Creativity in the Classroom. Creativity is the imaginative combining of known elements into something new and useful. One of the charges often made against military instruction is that it is too traditional and lacks creativity; dry-as-dust presentations are more like briefings than real teaching lectures. Instructors who are stiff and expressionless fail to communicate fully, forcing students to memorize and recite low-level information. Hopefully, these type of military classes are largely things of the past. However, we must guard against becoming complacent. Modern technology may turn our well-intended teaching efforts into briefings or "talking heads" presentations. As such, we must con-stantly be aware of the barriers to our creativity.

1.4.3. Barriers to Creativity. A barrier is something that inhibits our ability to be free, natural, and spontaneous, thereby decreasing the opportunity for creative ideas. Recognizing and understanding various barriers is the first step in overcoming them.

1.4.3.1. Experts have identified four broad categories of barriers to creativity—inertia, fear, prej-udice, and habit. Inertia causes many of us to continue doing what we are now doing unless we are challenged. Instructors who are afraid to be different may avoid attracting attention by leaving things as they are. Instructors who are prejudiced reject new approaches and methods because they automatically prejudge anything new without trying it. Habit is a very real problem for Air Force instructors. Courses may be taught the same way time after time—not because the course is a good one, but because "that's how it's always been done."

1.4.3.2. Air Force instructors, then, should be creative instructors, who know when to be guided by time-tested methods and when to strike out boldly in new directions.

1.5. Overview of Manual. This manual should be read from chapter to chapter in order. This allows the new instructor to benefit most from what this manual has to offer. Many of the chapters build on informa-tion presented earlier. You may find it difficult to understand a particular chapter if read out of sequence;

but if you know what you are looking for, you can go directly to the appropriate chapter.

1.5.1. Lesson Planning chapters (Chapter 2 through Chapter 6, and Chapter 10) introduce the the-ory and practice of writing student-centered objectives for academic instruction. The system of lesson planning combines both behavioral and cognitive learning theories. Because student behavior in the academic setting represents more than what simply meets the eye, it is important to plan for changes

AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 23

in the level of student learning. The techniques presented will prepare you to plan for lessons designed to develop skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes.

1.5.2. Lesson Development chapters (Chapter 7 through Chapter 9) develop, organize, and support academic lessons. We must plan carefully to achieve different levels of knowledge, skills, and atti-tudes. Several approaches and patterns of lesson development promote student learning. Regardless of how well we write learning objectives, poor lesson development can hinder or even prevent desired learning outcomes.

1.5.3. While the academic instructor has a wide variety of methods available, Instructional Media and Methods chapters (Chapter 11 through Chapter 20) focus on several of the most valuable—Teaching Lecture, Guided Discussion, Case Study, Teaching Interview, Demonstration-Performance, and Expe-riential Method of Instruction. Chapter 19, Selecting Teaching Methods, presents other methods in less detail. In addition, the questioning chapter focuses on the skills of classroom questioning which are fundamental to nearly all methods of instruction.

1.5.4. The Evaluation chapters (Chapter 21 through Chapter 27) introduce the two major approaches to evaluation—Norm Referenced (comparing individual student performance to that of the group) and Criterion Referenced (comparing individual student performance to a predetermined objective or standard). These chapters introduce several ways to measure student performance and discuss the human element involved in providing meaningful feedback to students.

1.5.5. Chapter 28 through Chapter 31 deals with the learner rather than the learning process. No instructional system can succeed unless student needs are taken into account. We must address these needs whether we are planning for group or individualized learning. Instructors have a responsibility to establish a helping relationship with students.

1.6. Summary. This manual is a fresh rethinking of a complex and not completely understood subject— how to teach in the academic classroom so Air Force people will be more effective on the job. No book on this subject can have all the answers. But those who study this manual carefully will know the standard terminology and be able to ask and answer many of the right questions. With the help of this manual, instead of improvising in the classroom, we can approach our teaching job more systematically.

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Chapter 2

LEARNING THEORY

2.1. Introduction. Learning means many things to many people. To some, learning is simply a change in behavior as a result of experience; to others, it is something more difficult to see and measure which involves changing thinking processes. We learn to name objects as children and solve complex problems as adults. We learn attitudes and values. We can even learn to learn by improving study skills. But, how do we explain learning? Can any one theory of learning explain how we have learned all of what we can do, what we know, and why our attitudes and values are what they are? More importantly, what do we need to know about learning theory to be effective Air Force instructors?

2.2. A Historical View. Many theories try to explain how we learn, but psychologists and educators do not totally agree on any one of them. Most agree, however, that learning is best explained by one or a combination of two theories: behaviorism or cognitive theory.

2.2.1. Behaviorism. We know that all animals can learn. Many psychologists and educators believe that all animals, including humans, learn in about the same way. Behaviorists believe that we learn by having our behavior reinforced, and that our behavior can be shaped or controlled by external stimuli.

In the classroom, the external stimuli are the instructors. If what we do as students is positively rein-forced, we will learn to do it better and more often. If we get no reinforcement, or are punished for something we do, we tend to stop doing it. Therefore, in general, instructors can shape or modify a student's behavior by rewarding (encouraging the behavior) or punishing (inhibiting the behavior). It has been shown that positive reinforcement is a very strong tool for increasing a behavior. This sug-gests that, as instructors, we should reward the behavior students exhibit that we wish to see them con-tinue to perform.

2.2.1.1. The technical features of behaviorism are far more complex than this simple explanation.

Those of us who need understanding of behaviorism and its principles, especially authors of pro-grammed instruction and other self-paced learning materials, should read the works of B. F. Skin-ner and Holland. As classroom instructors, though, we need to realize the importance of controlling learning experiences by manipulating the classroom environment (stimuli) which gives our students a chance to behave or perform (respond) in the way we desire and can reward (reinforce).

2.2.1.2. Behaviorism can certainly be used to explain the way our students learn much of what we teach. We need to be aware of the importance of stimulus, response, and reinforcement as they affect our classrooms. Whether or not we view ourselves as behaviorists, these are important con-cepts to consider as we plan, deliver, and evaluate instruction.

2.2.2. Cognitive Theory. Much of psychological thinking and experimentation today falls into the general category of cognitive psychology. Unlike the behaviorists, the cognitive psychologists are very concerned about what is going on inside the learner. Learning is not just a change in behavior; it is a change in the way a student thinks, performs, and/or feels. Learning can be measured in terms of behavior. But the behavior only represents learning; it is not equal to the learning in this theory.

2.2.2.1. Motivation, generalization, insight, and discovery are significant concepts to cognitive theorists. Instructors have the responsibility to set up an environment that motivates students. Fur-

AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 25

thermore, we must plan learning experiences that allow students to go beyond simple recall and cause students to gain an insight of what they study.

2.2.2.2. Like the behaviorists, the cognitive psychologists acknowledge the importance of rein-forcing behavior and measuring changes. We need to measure behavior because it is the only way we can get a clue about what the student thinks, feels, and/or can do. While students may be able to do much more with what we teach than we are able to test, we still have to measure what we can. And, what we measure is usually limited to the kinds of behavior we can capture with a paper-and-pencil test or a performance exam. There will be errors as we try to measure these behavioral indicators, but since understanding and feelings cannot be measured directly we have little choice. Since we want to quantify learning, we have to measure and interpret student behav-ior.

2.3. Combining the Approaches. Both the behaviorist and cognitive approaches are useful learning the-ories. We can see from the two brief descriptions that each theory has contributed to the way we plan, deliver, and evaluate Air Force instruction. Perhaps the best approach to planning and managing instruc-tion is to include features of each major theory. Retaining the notion of cognitive learning while measur-ing behavioral outcomes seems to be the most workable approach. We can plan for low or high order cognitive outcomes and determine if these outcomes have been achieved by measuring and interpreting behavior. We often say that students really understand something because they can do this or that. There-fore, we can plan for cognitive learning, but we must use behavioral evidence to measure the learning.

2.3.1. Several approaches for planning instruction exist that combine cognitive concepts and behav-ioral evidence of learning. This manual presents an approach for writing and measuring cognitive lev-els of learning that stresses the need to specify and measure behavior. We will use the cognitive taxonomy of Dr Benjamin Bloom as a frame of reference to plan instruction and to give us a better understanding of the range of possible cognitive learning outcomes. By using this taxonomy, or clas-sification of learning outcomes, we will carefully specify behaviors that will give us reasonable evi-dence of learning at the various levels of knowledge and understanding. Figure 2.1. contains the basic description of the cognitive domain according to Bloom. The approach to using this taxonomy will be explained in considerable detail throughout this manual.

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Figure 2.1. Levels of Knowledge and Understanding.

2.3.2. A similar scheme for specifying attitudinal objectives has been developed by Dr. David R.

Krathwohl (Figure 2.2.). Like the Bloom taxonomy, Krathwohl attempts to arrange attitudinal objec-tives in an order of difficulty. We can then attach behavioral evidence to the various levels of this tax-onomy for purposes of measurement. Chapter 10 provides ways in which this taxonomy may be useful for planning instructional objectives that deal with attitudes.

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Figure 2.2. Levels of Attitude and Values.

2.3.3. There are several taxonomies that deal with cognitive, affective, and psychomotor learning.

However, this manual will use the Cognitive Taxonomy by Bloom and the Affective Taxonomy by Krathwohl. It will not deal with psychomotor skills to any significant degree (Figure 2.3.).

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Figure 2.3. Levels of Skill.

2.4. Summary. While we can plan for different levels of understanding and attitude development, we must measure student behavior. The behaviorists have taught us the value of several basic learning con-cepts including stimulus, response, and reinforcement. We need to plan instruction that capitalizes on these sound concepts.

2.4.1. In addition, we must remember that behavior represents a sample of learning in many cases. It is possible to change viewpoints, increase understanding, or affect the way a student feels about some-thing. These changes in the student cannot be observed and must be inferred from observed behavior.

As such, we must determine learning outcomes that provide evidence that we are doing our jobs as instructors. We have no choice then, but to measure behavioral indicators, which we will accept as evidence of learning.

2.4.2. The system presented here combines several essential elements of behavioral and cognitive learning theory. It is not simple, but neither is learning; however, it is workable. Years of experience with this and other similar systems indicate that Air Force instructors can use it to plan, prepare, deliver, and evaluate effective instruction.

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Chapter 3

WRITING STUDENT-CENTERED OBJECTIVES AND TESTS

3.1. Introduction. When we are deciding what to teach and how we're going to measure our success in the teaching environment, it isn't enough to simply determine who our students are, what they will need to know, or how we will present the material to them. When our planning stops there, we've failed to con-sider the most important element of the lesson-planning process—what our students will be able to do once they have received and processed the information we present.

3.1.1. It doesn't necessarily follow that what we present in class is what the student will learn. This belief has driven our public educational system for years, in violation of our most basic intuitions.

When we break down the teaching process into its basic elements we realize that, just as in any form of human communication, there is always the possibility of transmitting false messages or receiving misunderstood symbols in the teaching-learning relationship. Without effective and meaningful feed-back to both the teacher and the student, the resultant problem will go undetected and uncorrected.

3.1.2. For this reason, we advocate a change from the traditional model that places all the responsibil-ity for learning on the student. According to this older model, if the student doesn't get the message, it is the student's fault. To underscore this, we have even listed the teacher's activities, responsibilities, and objectives in the lesson plan implying that if the teacher does what is required, then the student will be "educated." Notice that when we design instruction completely in terms of teacher behaviors, there is little room for checking feedback the students can give us by way of behavioral change or improved abilities after the instruction has taken place.

3.1.3. Our current model attacks the assumption that, in order to plan effective lessons, it is enough to determine what the teacher must do in the classroom. Education is a shared process. Both the student and the teacher have certain responsibilities and expectations. But we also stress the primacy of the teacher's responsibility to plan lessons that bridge the gap between teacher and student responsibili-ties. And we propose that this gap be bridged by writing objectives that focus on the abilities we want the student to display after having received the instruction. With student-centered objectives, teachers are better able to plan teaching activities designed to efficiently impart and display the knowledge we want the students to learn.

3.2. Planning For Student-Centered Outcomes. Since the 1950's, there has been a movement within military and business establishments to promote student-centered instruction through the use of appropri-ate objectives. As a result, student-centered objectives that describe learning in terms of student outcomes versus instructor inputs have been used for four generations of Air Force personnel. Contributing to the widespread acceptance of this new model are publications such as AFMAN 36-2234, Instructional Sys-tems Development, AFH 36-2235, Volumes 1 through 11, and this manual. All of these have capitalized on the experience and principles gleaned from civilian texts used in public and private industries for years.

3.2.1. With the continued push for accountability in expenditures, the trend toward student-centered instruction is sure to continue. We have found that this approach is "results driven," goal oriented, and client centered. It is so much more effective in meeting our educational goals that it is the Air Force standard. Moreover, since student learning is defined in terms of objectives, our measurement of suc-cess in instructing is now based on comparing student performance to the objectives rather than on

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comparing students to each other in a given class. Hence, we have a more accurate, objective, and sta-ble foundation on which to make academic judgments about our students and predictions of their future success.

3.2.2. As stated earlier, learning may be defined as a change in behavior based on instruction. If this is true, our students should perform differently after receiving instruction. Moreover, if we have used student-centered objectives, that behavior should be what we predicted it would be. Table 3.1. and Table 3.2. are examples of educational taxonomies used when writing objectives. These educational taxonomies help instructors classify student learning outcomes. Figure 3.1., on the other hand, helps instructors classify student learning outcomes in the training field. Figure 3.2. compares the various learning outcomes as presented in Table 3.1., Table 3.2., and Figure 3.1. We will be able to demon-strate our students' success in learning by having them complete an evaluation that demonstrates the same physical or mental skill described in the objective. But how do we write lesson objectives? Para-graph 3.3. provides information on writing lesson objectives.

Table 3.1. Cognitive Taxonomy. (note)

NOTE: Adapted from "Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Handbook I: Cognitive Domain," ed. B. S.

Bloom, et al, New York; David McKay, 1956.

L I N E

A B

Level of Learning Definition 1 Knowledge Recall previously learned material (facts, theories, etc.) in essentially the same form as taught.

2 Comprehension See relationships, concepts, and abstractions beyond the simple remembering of material. Typically involves translating, interpreting, and estimating future trends.

3 Application Use learned intellectual material in new and realistic situations, including the application of rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories.

4 Analysis Break down material into its component parts so that the organizational structure may be understood, including the identification of the parts, analysis of the relationships between parts, and recognition of the organizational principles involved.

5 Synthesis Put parts together to form new patterns or structures, such as a unique communication (a theme or speech), a plan of operations (a research proposal), or a set of abstract relations (schemes for classifying information).

6 Evaluation Judge the value of material for a given purpose. Learning in this area is the highest in the cognitive hierarchy because it involves elements of all the other categories, plus conscious value judgments based on clearly defined criteria.

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Table 3.2. Types of Learning.

L A B I N E Learning Categories Proof of Learning 1 Forming Associations Associate, name, or respond to a specific input (stimulus). The person associates the response with a specific input only. The response may be vocal, subvocal (say it to yourself), written, or motor.

2 Forming Chains Recall sequences of actions or procedures that must be recalled in a specific order. In a chain, the response to one input becomes the input to the next response. This may involve chains of verbal responses or chains of motor responses.

3 Making Discriminations Make different responses to the various members of a particular class;

it means being able to distinguish among input information sources and/or types and then respond appropriately to each.

4 Making Classification Respond in a single way to all members of a particular class of observable or abstract events. This involves recognizing the essential similarity among a class of objects, people, events, or abstractions and recognizing the differences separating those objects, people, events, or abstractions that are not members of the class.

5 Using Rules Apply rules to a given situation or condition by responding to a class of inputs with a class of actions. A rule states the particular relationship between two or more simpler concepts. It is helpful to think of rules as "if-then" statements.

6 Problem Solving Compare previously learned rules to create a higher order rule.

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Figure 3.1. Air Force Proficiency Code.

PROFICIENCY CODE KEY

SCALE

VALUE DEFINITION: The Individual

1 Can do simple parts of the task. Needs to be told or shown how to do most of the task. (EXTREMELY LIMITED)

2 Can do most parts of the task. Needs help only on hardest part.

TASK (PARTIALLY PROFICIENT)

PERFORMANCE

LEVELS

3 Can do all parts of the task. Needs only a spot check of completed work.

(COMPETENT)

4 Can do the complete task quickly and accurately. Can tell or show how to do the task. (HIGHLY PROFICIENT) a Can name parts, tools, and simple facts about the task.

(NOMENCLATURE)

b Can determine step-by-step procedures for doing the task.

*TASK (PROCEDURES)

KNOWLEDGE

LEVELS

c Can identify why and when the task must be done and why each step is needed. (OPERATING PRINCIPLES) d Can predict, isolate, and resolve problems about the task. (COMPLETE

THEORY)

A Can identify basic facts and terms about the subject. (FACTS) B Can identify relationship of basic facts and state general principles

**SUBJECT about the subject. (PRINCIPLES)

KN…