AttachmentP_SUCRInterpretivePlan.pdf

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Attached to: SUCR EXHIBIT DESIGN-BUILD Federal contract opportunity
Solicitation number: P17PS01465
Issued by: Department of the Interior National Park Service

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Interpretive Concept Plan

Section	1
Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

National	Park	Service
U.S.	Department	of	the	Interior

Flagstaff Area National Monuments

SUCR - Attachment P / April 2017

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

Contents

Introduction to the Interpretive Concept Plan 1

Introduction to the Monuments 1

Park	Maps					2
Sunset	Crater	Volcano	National	Monument	3
Wupatki	National	Monument			9
Walnut	Canyon	National	Monument		16

Planning Considerations 21

Resource	Analysis			21
Sunset	Crater	Volcano		21
Wupatki			22
Walnut	Canyon		25

Management	Direction				26
Traditionally	Associated	Cultures	and	Consultation	28
Visitors	and	Visitor	Use			28

Visitor	Studies			28
Volume				29
Patterns	and	Trends			29
Demographics,	Motivations,	Expectations	31
Potential	Audiences			35

Available	Resource	Materials		37
Adjacent	Land	Uses			37
Related	Sites			38
Summary	of	Planning	Considerations		38

Integrating the Monuments’ Interpretive Programs 40

FLAG	Unifying	Themes	and	Potential	Treatments	41
Park	Themes	and	Potential	Treatments			48

Sunset	Crater	Volcano			48
Wupatki			51
Walnut	Canyon			56

Consistent	Communication	of	the	Mission		60
Consistent	Messages					60
Consistent	Terminology				61
Interpretive	Themes	By	Location			63

The Vision for FLAG-wide Interpretation 66

Interpretive Plan for Facilities, Sites, Media, and Services 66

Facilities	and	Sites
Visitor	Centers				66
Interpretive	Contact	Stations/Facilities	68
Primary	Interpretive	Sites		69
Secondary	Interpretive	Sites		70

FLAG	Media		72
Exhibits		72

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

Wayside	Exhibits					72
Interpretive	Panels				73
Parkwide,	FLAG-wide	Orientation	Panels	74
Trailhead	Orientation	Panels			75

Publications	76
Internet	77

Services Personal Services 77

Core	Services		78
FLAG	Education	Program	80

Learning	Center		80
Research	and	Evaluation	81

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

Introduction to the Interpretive Concept Plan

The

Flagstaff

Areas

(FLAG)

group

three

national

monuments:

Sunset

Crater

Volcano

(SUCR),

Walnut

Canyon

(WACA),

and

Wupatki

(WUPA).

Because

the

monuments

themes

and

are

involved

collaborative

operations,

this

plan

has

been

developed

unite

planning

and

implementation

the

three

interpretive

operations.

should

considered

part

the

FLAG

Comprehensive

Interpretive

Plan

(FLAG

CIP).

The

specific

purpose

this

plan

to:

1. introduce	both	the	unique	and	shared	natural/cultural	histories	of	the	monuments;
2. outline	planning	considerations	such	as:	management	vision;	visitors	and	visitor	use;

available	interpretive	experiences	and	resources;	analysis	of	current	facilities,	media,
and	services;	and	influences	from	adjacent	land	uses;

3. make	recommendations	to	achieve	an	integrated	FLAG-wide	interpretive	program;
4. provide	direction	for	FLAG-wide	interpretation	by	describing	an	interpretive	plan	for

the primary interpretive facilities and sites, and shared interpretive opportunities.

the

foundation

for

the

interpretive

program,

this

plan

should

referred

whenever

new

revised

services

are

being

planned

and

brought

line

the

Desired

Future

Interpretive

Program

described

FLAG

CIP

implemented.

Introduction to the Monuments

Although

separate

and

unique

parks,

established

different

times

and

for

different

purposes,

the

Flagstaff

Areas

are

closely

linked

each

other

and

the

surrounding

region

through

their

cultural

and

natural

histories.

The

following

pages

introduce

those

histories,

providing

overview

the

parks’

significance.

They

also

capture

some

the

common

things

visitors

inquire

about

including

changes

visitor

experiences.

(Please

see

the

FLAG

Long-Range

Interpretive

Plan

for

park

statements

purpose

and

significance)

This

information

should

provided

new

employees

way

learn

the

important

aspects

not

only

their

park,

but

also

the

other

two

(it

may

useful

planners

and

designers

overview

the

monuments).

soon

possible,

interpreters

should

begin

thinking

opportunities

help

visitors

connect

the

other

sites,

they

are

best

understood

visiting

all

three.

This

section

should

reviewed

annually

and

updated

that

reflects

the

most

current

thinking

and

information

available.

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

Park maps

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument

Regional

Context

Sunset

volcano,

erupting

the

mid

late

1000’s,

was

the

only

eruption

the

Southwest

indisputably

witnessed.

small

part

impressive

volcanic

field,

the

second

largest

the

U.S….northern

Arizona

would

less

inspiring,

relatively

flat

plateau

without

this

volcanic

activity.

The

volcanism

has

created

numerous

mountains

(including

the

San

Francisco

Peaks

12,633

feet),

hills

and

bumps,

and

lava

flows,

which

remain

caps

low-lying

mesas.

These

different

elevations

support

different

biotic

communities.

There

would

considerably

less

variety

climate

and

environments,

less

habitat

and

species

diversity,

fewer

options

for

life,

without

the

volcanic

activity.

The

rapid

changes

elevation

found

here

and

many

part

the

Southwest

make

possible

travel

only

miles

and

move

from

the

heat

and

aridity

the

desert

(like

Wupatki)

the

cooler

mountains.

For

thousands

years

people

have

been

able

exploit

wide

variety

environments

with

minimal

movement.

Many

groups,

past

and

present,

have

taken

advantage

that

opportunity.

The

San

Francisco

Volcanic

Field

has

not

been

active

since

the

eruption

Sunset

Crater,

but

geologists

tell

simply

prudent

planning

aware

the

volcanic

history

and

potential

this

landscape—a

history

that

spans

million

years.

shouldn’t

surprise

when

new

mountain

added

the

than

600

already

here.

Dating

the

Eruption

the

eastern

edge

the

San

Francisco

Volcanic

Field,

Sunset

Crater

Volcano

currently

the

Colorado

Plateau’s

most

recent

dated

volcanic

eruption—the

youngest,

least-eroded

and

weathered

cinder

cone

the

volcanic

field

(an

eruption

the

North

Rim

Grand

Canyon

may

similar

age).

The

recent

nature

the

volcano

valuable

geologists,

providing

unique

insight

into

fresh

lava

and

cinder

weathering

processes

semi-arid

climate.

Its

eruptive

cycle

has

been

debated,

with

early

paleomagnetic

studies

proposing

100-200

year

cycle;

new

studies

the

depositional

relationships

cinder

and

lava

flows

seem

indicate

normal,

short-lived

event

perhaps

several

years

less

occurring

sometime

between

1040

and

1100.

(Cinder

cones

are

normally

one-time

phenomena

which

cinders

rapidly

build

around

central

vent).

Scientists

are

now

studying

nitrogen

levels

tree

rings

Paricutin

Mexico

see

the

eruptive

events

there

were

recorded.

this

information

can

applied

tree

ring

studies

here,

may

help

constrain

the

length

the

Sunset

eruption;

the

results

should

available

2003.

Dr.

Harold

Colton,

founder

the

Museum

Northern

Arizona

(MNA),

first

recognized

the

connection

between

Sunset

Crater

and

nearby

buried

pithouse

remains

the

early

1930s.

was

able

provide

relative

date

for

the

eruption

based

ceramic

material,

but

was

tree-ring

dates

from

three

beams

(found

nearby

Wupatki

Pueblo)

that

gave

geologists

the

first

definitive

date

for

the

Sunset

eruption.

These

trees

exhibited

extremely

narrow

growth

rings

interpreted

the

devastating

effects

the

eruption.

most

information,

the

eruption

(based

these

samples)

stated

starting

between

the

fall

1064

and

spring

1065.

However,

where

these

trees

were

harvested

and

whether

they

actually

represent

the

eruption

are

debated—the

growth

pattern

could

the

result

other

stress

such

fire

disease.

other

trees

recovered

from

sites

all

around

the

Flagstaff

area

have

this

same

tree

ring

pattern.

New

paleomagnetic

dates

place

the

eruption

between

1030

and

1170,

the

1064

date

may

viable,

but

additional

evidence

would

strengthen

the

assumption.

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

The

Eruptive

Sequence

and

Volcanic

Features

When

the

monument

was

established,

the

precise

timeframe

and

geologic

processes

responsible

for

the

creation

Sunset

Crater

were

unknown.

Geological

work

beginning

the

1970s

dated

some

features

near

the

cinder

cone

and

analyzed

the

sequence

eruptions.

Geologists

continue

work

out

the

details,

but

appears

that

during

the

peak

volcanic

activity

least

nine

other

cinder

cones,

numerous

smaller

spatter

cones

and

fumaroles,

and

three

lava

flows

were

simultaneously

active

along

fissure,

forming

‘curtain-of-fire’

style

eruption

much

those

observed

today

Hawaii.

These

volcanic

features

along

the

fissure

appear

form

line

successively

older

parts

the

Sunset

volcanic

event.

They

are

outside

the

monument

the

Coconino

National

Forest.

The

eruption

began

basaltic

magma

flowed

the

surface

through

deep

fracture

the

earth’s

crust.

The

surface

geologic

expression

this

fracture

was

six-mile-long

volcanic

fissure,

trending

northwest

southeast

along

which

rows

small

cinder

cones

formed.

Sunset

volcano

erupted

the

northwest

end

this

fissure

where

strombolian

fountaining

localized.

Volcanic

magma

was

ejected

from

vent

and

thrown

into

the

air

while

still

hot,

liquid

state.

The

ejected

magma

cooled,

hardened,

and

fell

ash,

cinder,

and

popcorn-sized

particles

(scoria).

Larger

material

(bombs)

much

feet

diameter

was

also

ejected.

Larger,

heavier

material

accumulated

around

the

vent

build

cone-shaped

volcano

with

crater

depression

centered

over

the

vent.

The

cone

approximately

1,000

feet

high

and

than

mile

wide

the

base.

The

crater

about

400

feet

deep

and

2,250

feet

from

rim

rim.

Gaseous

fumaroles

the

crest

the

cinder

cone

left

distinct

white,

yellow,

and

pink

mineral

deposits.

blanket

ash

(tephra)

ejected

during

the

eruption

covered

than

800

square

miles

and

accumulated

three

feet

deep

around

the

cinder

cone.

Erosion

has

removed

and

locally

redeposited

much

the

tephra,

and

today

covers

area

only

about

122

square

miles.

recent

study

has

confirmed

that

the

majority

the

tephra

Wupatki

National

Monument

Sunset

origin,

and

originally

blanketed

the

entire

Wupatki

area

with

minimum

2-4

inches

ash

during

the

eruption.

While

Sunset

volcano

was

erupting,

two

basalt

lava

flows

broke

out

the

base

the

cinder

cone.

The

Kana-A

Flow

(outside

the

monument

boundary

the

Coconino

National

Forest),

largely

pahoehoe

type

lava

flow,

extruded

near

the

eastern

base

and

flowed

than

six

miles

the

northeast,

filling

narrow

valley.

The

Bonito

Lava

Flow,

composite

pahoehoe

and

a’a

lava

flow,

extruded

from

the

northwest

base

and

locally

pooled

over

2-square-mile

area

between

the

west

side

the

cinder

cone

and

five

older

volcanic

domes

and

cones.

believed

have

accumulated

much

100

feet

thick

during

least

three

separate

flows.

While

the

Bonito

lava

was

flowing

away

from

the

base

the

volcano,

portions

the

cinder

cone

were

rafted

away

top

the

flow

far

mile

the

northwest.

cinder

blanket

top

both

the

Kana-A

and

Bonito

flows

evidence

the

cinder

cone

quickly

rebuilt

itself

through

continued

eruption

the

lava

flowed.

all,

the

eruptions

and

flows

ejected

and

extruded

estimated

billion

tons

material.

Geochemical

studies

may

indicate

that

separate

and

compositionally

distinct

batches

magma

supplied

two

principal

eruption

episodes;

however,

work

needed

regarding

this

theory.

The

narrow

range

lava

compositions

indicates

that

the

separate

batches

were

derived

the

same

type

melting

process

from

similar

mantle

materials;

each

batch

was

fairly

small

and

moved

rapidly

eruption,

each

eruption

episode

was

likely

short,

with

unknown

time

interval

between.

This

evidence,

supported

additional

studies,

would

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

important

because

emphasizes

that

small,

apparently

simple,

basaltic

cones

can

have

complicated

magmatic

and

eruption

histories

than

traditionally

presumed.

The

monument

preserves

unusual

features

spatter

cones

and

squeeze-ups,

for

which

Sunset

Crater

the

type

locality.

The

fumarole

deposits

(minerals

deposited

steam

during

the

waning

stages

activity)

the

rim

the

crater

contain

one

mineral

that

the

only

known

Arizona

occurrence,

and

cubic

form

magnetite--one

known

world

occurrences

this

crystal

shape.

Human

Response

the

Eruption

The

eruption

profoundly

affected

the

way

life

local

inhabitants

during

the

11th

and

12th

centuries;

must

have

been

one

the

most

significant

events

the

lives

anybody

living

with

the

Flagstaff

area

even

the

greater

Southwest.

Scientists

have

estimated

the

visibility

the

eruption

using

digital

elevational

modeling;

clear

day

the

ash

plume

could

have

been

seen

from

high

points

hear

Palm

Springs

(CA),

Las

Vegas

(NV),

Durango

(CO),

west-

central

New

Mexico,

and

along

the

Arizona-Mexico

border.

The

fire

fountain

could

have

been

seen

from

points

Southern

Utah,

and

east,

west,

and

central

Arizona.

Areas

significant

prehistoric

population,

such

Chaco

Canyon

and

the

Phoenix

Basin

were

within

sight

the

minimum

ash

plume.

Most

groups

living

the

Southwest

this

time

would

have

been

aware

that

something

very

unusual

was

occurring.

Prior

the

eruption,

the

area

and

immediately

surrounding

the

monument,

including

the

rims

Walnut

Canyon,

was

occupied

farmers

who

lived

small,

scattered

hamlets

adjacent

their

fields.

These

farmers,

whom

Hopi

and

Zuni

consider

ancestors

and

whom

archeologists

attribute

the

Sinagua

tradition,

flourished

the

Flagstaff

region

from

about

600

until

1400

when

they

migrated

areas

east

and

south.

When

Sunset

volcano

erupted,

people

apparently

moved

out

harm’s

way,

but

their

pithouse

homes

were

burned

and

filled

with

cinders

and

prime

agricultural

land

was

buried.

evidence

has

been

found

indicating

they

were

surprised

the

eruptions,

and

human

remains

have

been

found

indicating

deaths

occurred

direct

result

the

volcanic

activity.

(There

would

have

been

early

warning

signs:

the

ground

heating

up,

fissures

forming

with

groundwater

boiling

and

clouds

steam,

frequent

earthquakes).

Corncob

imprints

lava

rocks,

interpreted

evidence

ritual

offerings

made

approachable

spatter

cones,

may

hint

their

reaction

witnessing

the

birth

new

mountain.

The

people

soon

discovered

that

the

deep

cinder/ash

fall

the

immediate

vicinity

the

volcano

was

not

farmable.

(In

fact,

cinder

depths

than

inches

would

prevent

farming

for

hundreds

years

there

nutrient

source

cinders).

But

they

moved

northward

and

the

depth

ash

diminished

2-4

inches,

they

found

that

the

cinder

cover

acted

moisture-retaining

mulch.

Low

elevation

areas

that

were

previously

unsuitable

for

farming

began

produce

successful

crops.

the

same

time,

favorable

climatic

conditions

coincident

with

the

volcanic

activity

may

have

increased

the

desirability

these

lower

elevation

areas

for

farming.

Most

archeologists

believe

that

the

creation

this

new

farmland,

with

its

consequent

displacement

local

settlers

from

what

was

once

heavily

occupied

farming

area,

was

primary

reason

for

development

the

multiethnic

complex

culture

what

now

Wupatki

National

Monument.

Early

theories

also

suggested

that

people

moved

into

the

Walnut

Canyon

area

greater

numbers

“escape

deteriorating

conditions

elsewhere

and

flight

from

the

detrimental

effects

the

eruption.”

Counter

these

theories

the

argument

that

the

time

frame

coincides

with

pan-Southwestern

population

expansion.

Regardless,

there

little

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

explain

why

earlier

occupation

Walnut

Canyon,

with

abundant

resources,

was

not

greater,

and

there

ample

indication

that

during

the

1100s

(after

the

eruption),

Walnut

Canyon

(and

Wupatki)

became

much

attractive

for

agricultural,

social,

and

possibly

defensive

reasons.

least

archeological

sites

have

been

documented

within

one

mile

park

boundaries,

the

majority

being

Sinagua

pit

structures

dating

between

650-1065;

one

can

only

imagine

what

lies

buried

under

cinder

and

lava.

Few

sites

have

been

documented

within

the

monument

but

only

the

park

has

been

surveyed.

Archeological

sites

are

currently

not

available

interpreted

visitors.

It’s

not

surprising

that

Hopi

and

other

oral

traditions

include

stories

about

the

eruption.

The

Hopi

believe

that

their

ancestors’

spirits,

the

Katsinas,

travel

from

the

San

Francisco

Peaks

Hopi

and

back

each

year

via

Sunset

Crater

and

Bonito

Park,

and

some

deities

are

believed

reside

the

immediate

area.

(Kana-A

lava

flow

named

after

Hopi

deity

associated

with

Sunset

Crater

Volcano).

The

Navajo,

Apache,

and

Yavapai

consider

the

Cinder

Hills

area

general

traditional

cultural

property

because

events

that

took

place

there

the

mythical

past.

Zuni

places

identified

Hopi

culturally

significant.

These

groups

maintain

ties

Sunset

Crater

and

its

associated

volcanic

features;

each

have

their

own

names

for

the

mountain

area.

Hopi

shrines

situated

within

and

outside

park

boundaries

are

part

sacred

landscape

linking

the

Hopi

Mesas

with

the

San

Francisco

Peaks.

Several

shrines

are

located

along

old

trail

that

crosses

the

Little

Colorado

River

near

Black

Falls,

then

passes

through

the

Wupatki

area

and

the

Cinder

Hills

the

north

route

Sunset

Crater.

The

trail

then

contours

around

the

northern

flank

Sunset

Crater

and

Bonito

Park

and

the

eastern

slope

the

San

Francisco

Peaks

before

descending

toward

Flagstaff.

The

Ecology

and

Recovery

Following

the

Eruption

Today

Sunset

Crater

Volcano

National

Monument

protects

3040

acres

relatively

undeveloped

landscape

with

small

but

unique

habitats.

These

habitats

include

pioneering

vegetation

stands

isolated

the

middle

the

lava

flows,

pioneering

vegetation

islands

deep

cinder

deposits,

and

the

downslope

perimeter

lava

flows

where

water

seepage

may

prevalent.

Localized

stands

isolated

vegetation

are

found

the

young

and

harsh

surface

terrain

the

Bonito

flow.

These

areas

are

relatively

undisturbed

and

provide

unparalleled

opportunity

study

soil

formation,

pioneering

vegetation

establishment,

plant

succession,

and

ecological

change

arid

volcanic

landscape.

This

story,

however,

not

well

understood.

The

dominant

regional

vegetation

mature

open

ponderosa

pine

forest

but

about

half

the

monument

barren

semi-barren

cinder

fields;

after

800+

years,

succession

here

has

only

just

begun.

The

localized

vegetation

“islands”

ponderosa,

pinyon,

and

aspen

see

today

effectively

float

the

relatively

young,

deep

cinder

deposits.

Without

disturbance,

these

islands

will

eventually

knit

together

form

forested

landscape

seen

across

the

rest

the

volcanic

field.

But,

aridity

makes

succession

exceedingly

slow.

Until

substantial

soil

formation

occurs

and

organic

material

increases,

plant

growth

cinders

essentially

hydroponics

plants

must

capable

rapidly

absorbing

water

and

water-borne

nutrients.

Soil

formation

precarious

these

deposits

because

weathered

soil

particles

must

accumulate

between

the

cinders

order

for

plants

germinate

and

survive.

the

early

stages,

this

process

easily

disrupted

disturbance

that

dislodges

the

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

particles

and

causes

them

sift

into

the

cinders

too

deep

support

plant

germination

and

establishment.

Off-road

and

off-trail

use

may

not

ecologically

sustainable

these

cinder

deposits.

Around

the

“toe”

the

lava

flows,

areas

water

seepage

may

provide

unique

microhabitat

for

plants.

Water

can

collect

upon

the

hardened

lava

surface

and

channeled

through

fracture

systems

the

perimeter

the

flow

where

may

locally

benefit

plant

life

before

quickly

percolating

deep

into

the

adjacent

cinder

barrens.

These

isolated

vegetation

island

habitats

support

Penstemon

clutei

(Sunset

penstemon)

and

Phacelia

serrata,

species

endemic

the

volcanic

soils.

These

unique

habitats

likely

harbor

numerous

plants,

provide

scarce

wildlife

habitat

that

would

not

otherwise

found,

and

greatly

contribute

overall

biodiversity

within

the

monument.

The

area

relatively

rich

plant

species,

with

166

documented

species,

including

limited

numbers

quaking

aspen,

Utah

juniper,

cliffrose,

apache

plume,

and

pinyon

pine.

Fractured

lava

flows

and

lava

tube

features

may

provide

habitat

for

rare

bat

species

and

other

unique

wildlife.

Surface

water

essentially

nonexistent

and

habitat

for

larger

animals

limited

within

the

monument.

The

surrounding

forest

provides

foraging

habitat

for

mule

deer,

elk,

pronghorn,

bobcat,

and

coyote,

and

home

variety

small

mammals

including

Abert

squirrel,

cottontail

rabbit,

and

porcupine.

The

average

annual

precipitation

the

monument

inches,

and

7,000

feet

elevation,

average

snowfall

inches.

Winter

days

are

cold

mild;

afternoon

thunderstorms

are

common

July

through

September.

Domestic

water

for

the

monument

was

provided

deep

wells

(water

table

depth

about

2000

feet)

until

recently;

today

water

purchased

from

Doney

Park

(near

Flagstaff).

Park

Development

Legend

says

that

explorer

John

Wesley

Powell

originally

named

the

volcano

Sunset

Peak

for

its

striking

rim

red

cinders,

but

much

doubt

remains

the

exact

origin

the

name.

Eventually,

became

known

Sunset

Crater.

The

Coltons

(of

the

Museum

Northern

Arizona)

were

instrumental

getting

the

area

set

aside

monument

1930,

spurred

moviemaker

plans

dynamite

the

volcano

create

landslide

for

movie

set.

1991

the

monument

name

was

officially

changed

Sunset

Crater

Volcano

National

Monument.

The

name

change

took

place

clearly

identify

the

primary

resource

the

area.

The

Civilian

Conservation

Corps

(CCC)

added

much

the

Flagstaff

region

and

each

the

monuments,

constructing

the

first

roads,

trails,

fences,

and

phone

lines.

The

unpaved

cinder

road

deterred

all

but

the

most

adventuresome

visitors;

paving

was

not

complete

until

1957.

tent

home

was

built

1948

house

the

first

on-site

ranger.

Virtually

all

the

facilities

Sunset

Crater

were

constructed

and

road

refinements

accomplished

the

final

years

the

NPS

Mission

development

program

(1964).

The

visitor

center

complex

(maintenance

outbuildings,

visitor

center,

and

apartments)

was

built

Forest

Service

(USFS)

land;

few

alterations

have

occurred

and

the

whole

the

complex

remains

its

original

design

and

layout.

The

“lunar”

landscape

Sunset

Crater

Volcano

and

the

neighboring

Cinder

Hills

played

important

part

training

the

Apollo

astronauts

for

lunar

travel.

During

the

1960s,

mock

lunar

module

toured

the

cinder

fields

and

astronauts

spacesuits

lumbered

over

the

hills

collecting

samples

and

“getting

feel

for

life

alien

environment.”

Craters

were

blasted

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

cinder

fields

south

the

monument

simulate

the

Sea

Tranquility,

the

landing

site

for

Apollo

11.

Although

the

volcanic

features

and

ecology

within

the

monument

remain

relatively

undisturbed,

this

not

the

case

immediately

outside

the

monument

boundaries.

Since

the

1970s,

popular

off-highway

vehicle

(OHV)

use

area

has

been

located

adjacent

Sunset

Crater

within

the

Coconino

National

Forest.

OHV

tracks,

visible

while

touring

the

monument,

cause

long-term

scarring

and

erosion

the

cinder

cones

and

other

geological

features

the

fissure.

Studies

have

shown

that

OHV

use

creating

gaps

the

forest,

decreasing

pine

density,

and

altering

the

spatial

structure

the

forest,

causing

wide

ranging

effects

the

animals

that

live

there.

The

abundance

and

richness

plants

about

50%

less

the

OHV

area

and

elk

and

deer

have

largely

abandoned

the

area.

the

same

time,

cinder

and

soil

particles

are

being

crushed

and

compacted

OHV

use

which

may

altering

the

nutrient

availability

the

soil.

This

mimics

weathering

processes

and

pushing

the

system

forward

time

while

the

reduction

vegetation

mimics

reset

succession,

moving

the

system

back

time.

These

varying

effects

have

altered

the

natural

trajectory

the

system

and

set

novel

course.

The

difficulty

rehabilitating

erosional

scars

exemplified

the

history

the

footpath

Sunset

Crater

Volcano.

Visitors

may

remember

climbing

the

cinder

cone;

however,

when

the

trail

became

hip-deep

rut,

total

climbing

closure

was

enacted

the

spring

1972.

$60,000

was

spent

shoveling

cinder

back

the

side

the

cone

and

filling

trails

and

trenches.

Despite

these

intensive

efforts

the

scar

remains

visible

the

crater’s

side.

alternative

climbing

the

volcano,

from

the

mid-70s

the

mid-80s,

the

NPS

provided

guided

bus

trips

the

top

O’Leary

Peak

for

view

Sunset

Crater.

Continuing

demand

for

view

this

aspect

the

primary

park

resource

largely

unmet—such

view

can

achieved

only

hiking

the

road

O’Leary

Peak.

Visitors

may

also

remember

exploring

the

Ice

Cave

along

the

Lava

Flow

Trail.

This

popular

attraction

was

closed

the

mid-1980s

because

resource

protection

and

safety

concerns.

“bat-friendly”

gate

was

installed

over

the

cave

entrance

1997.

Last Updated: 7/03

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

Wupatki National Monument

Regional

and

Park

Context

The

high,

arid

Colorado

Plateau

region

the

American

Southwest

world-renowned

for

its

abundant,

well-preserved

archeological

resources.

Archeological

remains

the

region

record

several

distinct

lifeways

and

adaptive

strategies,

including

hunting

and

gathering,

horticulture,

livestock

grazing,

and,

after

the

mid-19th

century,

participation

the

Euro-

American

global

economy.

Wupatki

National

Monument

preserves

important

piece

the

story

human

occupation

and

adaptation

the

southern

edge

the

Plateau.

Established

1924,

the

monument

was

created

protect

concentrations

well-preserved

architecture

specifically

dating

the

12th

and

early

13th

centuries,

when

formerly

scattered

families

began

consolidate

into

larger

village

communities

and

build

substantial

multiroom

structures.

There

are

least

2672

documented

archeological

and

historical

sites;

the

current

record

human

history

spans

12,000

years.

The

entire

monument

listed

the

National

Historic

Places.

The

archeological

landscape

includes:

residential

sites

with

architectural

forms

ranging

from

pit

houses

small

cliff

dwellings

large

freestanding

pueblos,

rock

shelters,

isolated

field

structures,

ceremonial

ballcourts,

lithic

quarries,

agricultural

field

systems,

shrines,

and

rock

art

panels.

addition

there

are

recent

Navajo

hogans

and

corrals,

and

miscellaneous

artifact

scatters.

This

variety

physical

remains

reflects

the

diverse

cultures

and

differing

economic

strategies

the

various

people

who

have

attempted

make

living

this

beautiful,

yet

challenging,

environment.

The

density

sites

this

area

astounding

(typically

there

are

than

sites

per

square

mile,

and

some

cases,

there

are

than

100

sites

per

square

mile).

Few

places

the

world

have

such

well-preserved

and

densely

populated

landscape

with

much

potential

provide

understanding

pre-Columbian

lifeways.

the

American

Southwest,

Mesa

Verde

National

Park

one

the

few

places

that

rivals

the

density

and

preservation

Wupatki’s

archeological

resources.

The

original

values

that

prompted

the

establishment

the

national

monument

persist

the

present

day.

The

majority

sites

the

monument

retain

high

degree

integrity

and

relatively

few

have

been

excavated.

Most

retain

their

original

masonry

architecture

and

less

complete

assemblage

artifacts.

Approximately

sites

have

been

stabilized

some

degree,

but

only

dozen

sites

were

substantially

altered

extensive

work.

These

include

Wupatki

and

Nalakihu

Pueblos,

which

were

subject

different

visible

stabilization

treatments

and

levels

reconstruction;

the

reconstructed

portions

Wupatki

Pueblo

were

removed

1952.

(MNA

conducted

the

first

excavations

Wupatki

Pueblo

the

1930s;

NPS

conducted

additional

research,

excavation,

and

stabilization

the

40s,

50s

and

60s).

Preservation

treatments

applied

these

buildings

led

the

NPS

establish

its

current

policy

against

reconstruction.

Pre-Columbian

Use

and

Settlement

History

Recent

archaeological

studies

have

significantly

increased

our

understanding

the

occupation

the

Wupatki

area.

know

that

after

Sunset

volcano

erupted

during

the

late

1000s,

settlement

system

arose

the

north

and

east,

populated

people

from

apparently

diverse

backgrounds

living

multiple

environmental

zones

and

interacting

across

those

zones.

There

was

simultaneous

significant

increase

people

living

Walnut

Canyon

and

notable

shift

toward

living

cliff

alcoves

the

canyon,

perhaps

response

regional

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

population

pressures.

now

understand

that

Wupatki

incorporates

only

small

fraction

the

environmental

zones

and

diversity

archaeological

sites

that

made

this

“post-

eruptive”

settlement

system

the

Flagstaff

region.

The

quality

and

density

the

archeological

resources

preserved

the

monument

matched,

and

some

cases

even

exceeded,

those

outside

the

monument.

The

vast

majority

the

than

5,000

sites

the

area

between

Wupatki

and

Sunset

Crater

are

direct

extensions

the

larger

settlement

system,

Wupatki

National

Monument

representing

only

the

northernmost

expression

that

system.

complete

inventory

archeological

resources

within

the

monument

was

completed

the

mid-1980s

providing

the

basis

for

reconstructing

Wupatki’s

history.

The

earliest

recorded

remains

the

monument

consist

isolated

Clovis

point

dating

11,500-11,000

years

ago.

number

younger

spear

points

and

some

rock

art

elements

apparently

dating

the

Archaic

Period,

9,000-3,000

before

present,

have

also

been

recorded.

Harold

Colton

(of

the

Museum

Northern

Arizona)

speculated

the

possible

presence

Basketmaker

people

living

the

site

Wupatki

Pueblo,

based

the

presence

cist-like

features

found

beneath

the

floor

the

“community

room.”

Besides

these

isolated

occurrences,

however,

archeological

sites

unequivocally

associated

with

preceramic

use

occupation

the

monument

have

been

identified.

The

first

evidence

Puebloan

occupation

does

not

appear

until

after

1000

and

confined

only

couple

small

sites.

The

survey

identified

only

two

sites

dating

prior

the

eruption.

These

may

represent

occasional

household

moves

into

lower

elevations

farm

during

wetter,

cooler

years.

The

vast

majority

archeological

sites

the

monument

date

between

1100-1250.

Traditionally,

the

Wupatki

area

has

been

interpreted

cultural

frontier—a

place

where

multiple

cultural

groups

lived

and

interacted

following

the

eruption

Sunset

volcano.

Pottery

evidence

indicates

extensive

use

and

occupation

the

area

three

contemporary

groups

identified

archeologists

belonging

the

Cohonina,

Sinagua,

and

Kayenta

Anasazi

cultural

traditions.

Evidence

occupation

least

ceramic

trade

contacts

with

people

affiliated

with

the

Prescott

culture

and

the

Little

Colorado

(Winslow)

Branch

Anasazi

are

also

present.

The

cultural

interaction

among

these

groups

and

with

the

Hohokam

cultural

tradition

the

south

most

evident

Wupatki

Pueblo,

home

built

the

“Anasazi

way”

but

furnished

with

Hohokam

type

ballcourt

and

Sinagua

style

pottery.

contrast

Wupatki

Pueblo

and

few

other

sites

the

immediate

vicinity,

the

majority

masonry

pueblos

the

monument

appear

affiliated

with

the

Kayenta

branch

the

Anasazi

culture.

This

based

the

predominance

distinctive

Anasazi

decorated

and

“corrugated”

utility

pottery

most

sites

the

monument.

Cohonina

pottery

common

many

these

sites,

particularly

the

western

reaches

the

monument,

but

unequivocal

Cohonina

residences

are

quite

rare

within

the

monument.

Although

the

interpretation

Wupatki

cultural

frontier

still

holds

true

general

sense,

the

evidence

date

confirms

that

the

Wupatki

area

primarily

place

inhabited

people

the

Kayenta

Anasazi

cultural

tradition.

interesting

note

that

concentrations

large

Cohonina

pithouse

villages

are

found

only

few

miles

the

south

and

west

the

monument.

South

the

Coconino

Divide,

the

vicinity

Sunset

Crater

and

Walnut

Canyon,

sites

are

predominantly

affiliated

with

the

Sinagua

tradition.

Although

partly

contemporaneous

with

the

main

occupation

Wupatki,

the

Cohonina

and

Sinagua

sites

south

the

monument

have

strikingly

different

appearance

and

feel,

dominated

pithouse

villages

with

basalt

masonry

architecture

(or

limestone

Walnut

Canyon)

and

plainware

pottery.

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

Colton

speculated

that

the

cultural

interaction

zone

developed

the

result

“land

rush,”

which

came

about

after

the

eruption

created

water-retaining

cinder

mulch

over

widespread

area;

land

that

was

previously

unsuitable

for

cultivation

began

sustain

large

farming

population.

Peter

Pilles

(USFS

archeologist)

has

been

outspoken

critic

the

Colton

hypothesis.

Pilles

argues

instead

for

local

population

increases

accompanied

changes

settlement

strategies

brought

about

widespread

favorable

climatic

conditions

period

slightly

wetter

and

cooler)

during

the

11th

century

explain

the

apparent

population

surge

the

Wupatki

area.

Whatever

the

explanation,

clear

that

site

populations

within

the

monument

increased

dramatically

and

rapidly

after

1065.

Population

increases

imply

increased

food

production,

but

farming

Wupatki

and

throughout

the

Flagstaff

region,

even

with

improved

climatic

conditions

and/or

ash

mulch,

was

never

easy

and

often

marginal.

People

had

make

difficult

choices

between

higher

elevations

with

moisture

but

shorter

growing

season,

and

lower

elevations

with

longer

season

but

less

moisture.

Furthermore,

each

year

dealt

unique

weather

pattern

and

the

variability

would

have

been

alarming.

Because

there

reason

believe

that

there

has

been

dramatic

regional

climate

change

since

Wupatki

was

last

occupied,

historic

weather

data

provides

idea

the

risks

confronted

these

dry

farmers.

People

likely

experienced

crop

failure

least

one

every

five

years.

extensive

farming

effort,

including

multiple

fields

diverse

locations,

large

storage

capabilities,

and

varying

reliance

hunted

and

gathered

foods

were

critical

supporting

families

difficult

years.

The

vast

majority

recorded

sites

the

monument

are

agricultural

features

and

small

unit

pueblos

pithouse

villages

with

fewer

than

six

rooms.

The

large

sites

such

Wupatki

Pueblo

(150+

rooms)

and

the

Citadel

(50+

rooms)

clearly

stand

out

unusual

structures.

Chris

Downum

(archeologist,

Northern

Arizona

University)

believes

they

may

represent

“highly

visible

public

representations

authority.”

Rather

than

housing

people,

these

large

pueblos

may

have

served

specific

purposes

for

families

living

around

them.

They

may

have

marked

group

territories

and

helped

people

control

and

protect

the

land

base

needed

for

extensive

farming

effort.

They

may

have

also

served

consolidate

and

recruit

new

members.

appears

that

Citadel

and

Wupatki

Pueblos

represent

separate

networks

interaction

that

consolidated

people

potentially

different

ethnic

affiliations,

given

the

spatial

patterning

seen

ceramics

and

other

traits.

People

united

controlling

land

bases

may

not

have

engaged

group

production

food-sharing.

This

arrangement

group

based

land

control

may

have

been

advantageous

short

term,

but

unstable

long

term

and

people

had

compete

for

limited

arable

land.

The

multi-story

Wupatki

Pueblo

may

have

been

center

for

trade,

ceremonial

activity,

and

cultural

interaction

within

the

region.

strategically

located

near

spring

and

near

several

natural

travel

corridors.

Travel

routes

included

the

east-west

Little

Colorado

Valley,

Deadman

Wash

(part

NE-SW

trade

route

linking

the

Hopi

Mesas

with

the

San

Francisco

Peaks),

plus

series

mountain

passes

the

south

and

east

Wupatki

that

allowed

travelers

pass

from

the

low

country

below

the

Mogollon

Rim

the

Colorado

Plateau

highlands.

Ideas

and

trade

goods

flowed

into

and

out

Wupatki

Pueblo,

evidenced

abundant

cotton

fabrics

woven

for

export,

and

imported

paint

palettes,

copper

bells,

turquoise

and

shell

jewelry,

and

the

largest

concentration

scarlet

macaws

known

the

American

Southwest.

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

The

Pueblo

also

contains

diverse

assortment

ceramics,

well

non-local

architectural

features,

such

the

Hohokam-style

ballcourt

and

Chacoan-style

banded

masonry.

Although

the

decorated

pottery

Wupatki

Pueblo

mostly

from

the

Kayenta

Anasazi

region

Arizona,

the

majority

pottery

Wupatki

Pueblo

Alameda

Brownware,

the

local

Sinagua

utility

ware.

Hence,

despite

exhibiting

numerous

outside

cultural

influences,

Wupatki

Pueblo

often

cited

Sinagua

site.

Yet

work

needed

convince

all

archeologists

that

the

cultural

affiliation

Wupatki

Pueblo

truly

known.

The

intense

period

building

and

occupation

the

Wupatki

area

sometimes

referred

the

“Wupatki

Phenomenon.”

The

“phenomenon”

was

relatively

short

lived,

lasting

approximately

120-150

years.

Site

population

decreased

dramatically

after

1220,

and

the

area

was

largely

unoccupied

after

1250.

The

ultimate

cause

the

migration

unclear,

although

climatic

deterioration

along

with

removal

and

redistribution

cinder

mulch

wind

action

has

been

suggested

one

possible

cause.

When

large

settlements

began

forming

during

the

1200s

well-watered

areas

along

the

Little

Colorado

River

and

the

Verde

Valley,

people

from

the

Flagstaff

region

were

likely

drawn

those

villages

social

environmental

conditions

changed

their

present

homeland.

There

may

have

been

multiple

reasons

for

leaving

these

homes,

including

destiny

described

Pueblo

traditional

history.

Historic

Occupation

and

Use

The

area

continued

used

sporadic

basis

after

the

13th

century,

primarily

Hopi

travelers

and

later

ancestral

Havasupai

for

seasonal

hunting

and

gathering.

Beginning

sometime

the

1800s,

Navajo

herders

moved

into

the

region.

the

late

1800s

the

Babbitt

family

had

founded

the

Bar

ranch.

Original

ranch

holdings

included

almost

all

what

now

Wupatki

National

Monument

and

much

the

grazing

land

used

Navajo.

During

this

time,

ranchers,

prospectors,

traders,

and

railroad

workers

competed

with

the

Navajo

for

control

and

use

the

land.

Eventually,

local

Navajo

families

were

largely

confined

the

use

the

Wupatki

Basin.

1941

the

Black

Falls

Trading

post

was

built

the

Little

Colorado

River

crossing

capitalize

the

anticipated

influx

Navajo

families

promised

the

construction

series

dams

other

Black

Falls

Posts

had

operated

the

other

side

the

river

from

1888

1940).

The

irrigation

project

never

produced

the

desired

results

and

the

post

operated

marginally

for

years

until

was

abandoned

1964.

But,

the

only

trading

post

located

one

few

crossings

the

river,

the

post

focused

the

economic

survival

the

Navajo

the

region

that

isolated

location.

The

post

was

torn

down

and

the

site

bulldozed

the

NPS

1964;

little

evidence

remains

today.

When

the

park

was

expanded

1937

the

lines

that

demarcated

its

boundaries

just

south

Black

Point

were

drawn

over

land

used

Hosteen

Peshlakai

Etsidi,

and

his

children

and

grandchildren.

Heads

household

were

given

lifetime

occupancy

and

grazing

rights

within

the

Wupatki

Basin.

the

1960s

all

but

the

family

Clyde

Peshlakai

had

moved

off

the

monument,

largely

due

grazing

restrictions

imposed

the

NPS,

deteriorating

relationships

with

the

NPS,

and

degrading

grazing

conditions.

Stella

Peshlakai

Smith

(in

her

70s)

holds

the

last

residence

and

grazing

permit.

Navajo

history

and

the

evidence

their

time

here

(approximately

220

sites

including

hogans,

corrals,

ramadas,

masonry

dams,

and/or

sweat

lodges)

were

not

acknowledged

the

park’s

enabling

legislation.

Cultural

Associations

The

Hopi

and

Zuni

consider

the

cultural

groups

Kayenta

Anasazi,

Sinagua,

and

Cohonina

their

ancestors,

and

the

archeological

sites

that

Wupatki

National

Monument

was

created

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

protect,

the

ancestral

homes

modern-day

Hopi,

Zuni,

and

other

Puebloan

people.

Certain

Navajo

clans

also

claim

affiliation

the

pueblo

remains,

well

the

historic

Navajo

residential

sites

the

monument.

least

eight

Hopi

clans

(Bear,

Sand,

Lizard,

Rattlesnake,

Water,

Snow,

and

Katsina)

and

the

Zuni

Parrot

Clan

trace

migrations

through

Wupatki.

These

sites

preserve

tangible

record

the

clan

migrations

recorded

tribal

oral

traditions.

Hopi

shrines

situated

within

and

outside

park

boundaries

are

part

sacred

landscape

linking

the

Hopi

Mesas

with

the

San

Francisco

Peaks.

There

are

several

shrines

along

prehistoric

trail

that

crosses

the

Little

Colorado

River

near

Black

Falls

then

passes

through

the

Wupatki

area

and

the

Cinder

Hills

the

south,

route

Sunset

Crater.

addition

the

archeological

sites,

shrines,

and

residential

sites,

other

Wupatki

resources

are

traditional

importance

the

American

Indian

tribes

the

area.

Numerous

plant

species

were

traditionally

used

and

many

these

plants

continue

have

importance

for

medicinal

and

ceremonial

purposes.

Several

culturally

important

plant

species

are

found

much

greater

abundance

within

the

monument

than

outside

it.

Geology

and

Ecology

the

Monument

Today

the

monument

protects

square

miles

(35,254

acres)

high

desert

(Great

Basin)

located

directly

west

the

Little

Colorado

River

and

the

Navajo

Reservation.

The

elevation

ranges

from

4,300

feet

the

Little

Colorado

River

5,600

feet

the

north

entrance.

the

FLAG

Areas,

Wupatki

has

the

greatest

geologic

diversity

and

the

greatest

cross-section

plant

communities.

The

monument

roughly

divided

into

thirds

Wupatki

Basin

the

east,

Big

Hawk

Valley

the

west,

and

Antelope

Prairie

between.

The

basin

separated

from

the

higher

prairie

Doney

Cliffs,

faulted

monocline

exposing

Kaibab

limestone.

Deadman

Wash

approximately

bisects

the

basin,

exposing

Moenkopi

sandstones

and

shales.

Portions

the

oldest

lava

flow

the

San

Francisco

Volcanic

Field—a

massive

flow

that

originated

from

the

San

Francisco

Peaks

and

flowed

the

Little

Colorado

River—are

preserved

East

and

Middle

Mesas

Antelope

Prairie.

The

earthcracks,

sinkholes,

and

blowholes

found

within

the

park

generate

scientific

interest,

are

unusual

geological

phenomena,

and

are

culturally

important

the

Hopi,

Navajo,

and

possibly

other

American

Indian

groups.

Pueblos

were

often

built

along

edges

earthcracks.

Earthcracks

are

surface

indications

substantial

joints

and

cracks

commonly

found

the

Kaibab

limestone.

Geologically,

they

are

high

angle

faults

with

minor

displacement,

small

grabens

resulting

from

crustal

distension

rifting

and

are,

therefore,

tectonic

origin.

Where

they

are

open

the

surface,

they

have

been

mapped

depths

500

feet.

Peter

Huntoon

well-known

hydrogeologist

and

caver)

has

referred

them

“the

deepest

caves

Arizona.”

These

features

may

unique

habitats

for

rare

species,

but

survey

efforts

have

just

begun.

The

desire

interpret

the

earthcracks

has

varied

considerably

over

the

years.

During

the

70s

and

80s

park

management

wanted

actively

interpret

site

near

Lomaki;

today

they

are

considered

safety

issue,

better

left

unsigned

and

uninterpreted

on-site.

They

are

closed

public

use.

Blowholes

are

small

openings

earthcracks

that

allow

cyclic

movement

air

and

out

the

underground

system

response

changing

air

pressure.

The

most

active

hole

located

near

the

ballcourt

Wupatki

Pueblo

and

has

interesting

history.

blowhole

this

vicinity

was

known

the

Navajo

the

area

and

apparently

silted

sometime

during

the

30s

40s.

The

location

was

marked

Clyde

Peshlakai

but

then

specifics

were

lost

over

time.

When

the

ballcourt

was

being

excavated

1965,

backhoe

reportedly

broke

through

removed

material,

exposing

entrance

the

earthcrack

system,

creating

what

was

likely

Flagstaff	Area	National	Monuments
Interpretive	Concept	Plan	component	of	the	Comprehensive	Interpretive	Plan

new

blowhole

(rather

than

exposing

the

original

opening).

decision

was

made

then

build

the

masonry

structure

around

the

opening

preserve

it,

drawing

some

criticism

later

that

the

NPS

created

and

preserved

“manmade”

blowhole.

Four-wing

saltbush,

broom

snakeweed,

and

apache

plume

dominate

the

Cold

Desert

Shrub

community,

comprising

roughly

half

the

park.

Black

grama,

galleta,

and

New

Mexico

feathergrass,

with

open

one-seed

juniper

woodland

dominate

the

vegetation

the

western

half

the

park.

These

open

grasslands

provide

important

habitat

for

pronghorn

habitat

has

been

lost

throughout

Arizona

recent

years

housing

developments,

highway

construction,

and

cross-fencing

formerly

open

range

land.

Juniper

woodland

has

also

been

rapidly

expanding

into

grasslands

during

the

last

century;

the

grasslands

that

once

dominated

from

3,000

5,000

feet

elevation

are

now

found

only

between

3,500-4,500

feet.

The

underlying

causes

are

the

subject

scientific

debate.

Many

ecologists

believe

that

cattle

grazing

combination

with

range-fire

suppression

favoring

juniper

growth.

Cattle

remove

much

the

grass

and

forbs

and

enhance

the

ability

juniper

seedlings

germinate

and

establish

what

were

once

continuous

grassland

areas.

Other

scientists

believe

that

are

witnessing

natural

succession

process

which

junipers

are

returning

formerly

occupied

habitat.

Human

occupation

much

the

region

certainly

must

have

included

the

use

any

available

wood

sources

for

fuel

and

construction

purposes.

The

grazing

history

and

associated

impacts

Wupatki

have

not

been

specifically

studied

and

are

difficult

assess

but

the

desert

areas

the

eastern

half

the

monument

are

likely

altered

Navajo

sheep

herding

and

ranching,

especially

the

intermittent

drainage

system

and

riparian

areas.

the

western

half

the

monument,

grazing

permits

held

the

Bar

Ranch

expired

1989.

When

compared

with

the

documented

regional

impacts

historic

ranching

activities,

these

grasslands,

still

dominated

native

perennial

bunchgrasses,

are

believed

good

condition.

They

are

the

focus

number

research

projects,

and

they

continue

recover,

should

only

increase

ecological

importance

and

scientific

value

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