Consumer Product Guide.pdf

Handbook for Public Playground Safety

U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission Washington, DC 20207 Pub. No. 325

U.S. CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY COMMISSION

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20207

We’re pleased to provide you with the latest edition of the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission’s (CPSC) Handbook for Public Playground Safety.

CPSC created its playground safety guidelines as a detailed working blueprint to help local communities, schools, day care centers, corporations, and other groups build safe playgrounds. This Handbook includes technical safety guidelines for designing, constructing, operating, and maintaining public playgrounds. To highlight some of the most important safety issues for parents and community groups, we’ve developed a “Public Playground Safety Checklist,” which can be found on the inside back cover.

Playgrounds are a fundamental part of the childhood experience. They should be safe havens for children. All of us have memories of playing on playgrounds in our neighborhood park and at recess in the schoolyard.

Unfortunately, more than 200,000 children are treated in U.S. hospital emergency rooms each year for injuries associated with playground equipment. Most injuries occur when children fall from the equipment onto the ground.

Many of these injuries can be prevented. To address the issue of falls, these guidelines emphasize the importance of protective surfacing around playground equipment. In this revised edition, we’ve added information about using shredded tires as a protective surfacing material. Other noteworthy changes here include revised or additional information about maximum equipment height, maintenance, lead paint on playground equipment, use zones, and clothing entanglement on equipment.

For a more complete list, check Appendix E.

Since 1981, CPSC has issued its Handbook for Public Playground Safety. Communities all across the country build their playgrounds to these safety specifications. We’ve included here everything we know today about making playgrounds as safe as possible. As new information becomes available, we are committed to getting it to you as soon as possible.

All of our children deserve a safe place to play. Let us work together to make that happen.

Handbook for Playground Safety

Table of Contents Page No.

1. Introduction

2. Playground Injuries

3. Definitions

4. Surfacing

5. Use Zones for Equipment

6. Layout and Design of Playgrounds

7. Installation & Maintenance of Equipment

8. Materials of Manufacture & Construction

9. General Hazards

10. Stairways, Ladders and Handrails

11. Platforms, Guardrails and Protective Barriers

12. Major Types of Playground Equipment

12.1 Climbing Equipment

12.2 Merry-Go-Rounds

12.3 Seesaws

12.4 Slides

12.5 Spring Rockers

12.6 Swings

12.7 Trampolines

13. References

APPENDICES

Appendix A — Suggested General Maintenance Checklist

Appendix B — Entrapment Recommendations and Test Methods

Appendix C — Characteristics of Surfacing Materials

Appendix D — Description of Loose-Fill Surfacing Materials

Appendix E — Noteworthy Revisions to the 1997 Handbook

Public Playground Safety Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inside Back Cover

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Scope

This handbook presents safety information for public playground equipment in the form of guidelines.

Publication of the handbook is expected to promote greater safety awareness among those who purchase, install, and maintain public playground equipment.

“Public” playground equipment refers to equipment for use in the play areas of parks, schools, child care facili-ties, institutions, multiple family dwellings, restaurants, resorts and recreational developments, and other areas of public use. The recommendations in this handbook address the typical user ages 2 through 12 years.

The handbook is intended for use by parks and recreation personnel, school officials, equipment purchasers and installers, and any other members of the general public concerned with public playground safety such as parents and school groups.

The guidelines are not intended for amusement park equipment, equipment normally intended for sports use, soft contained play equipment, equipment found in water play facilities, or home playground equipment.

The guidelines also do not apply to fitness trail exercise equipment intended for adult use, provided that these are not located on or adjacent to a children’s play-ground. Equipment components intended solely for the disabled and modified to accommodate such users are also not covered by these guidelines.

Because many factors may affect playground safety, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) believes that guidelines, rather than a mandatory rule, are appropriate. The guidelines are not a mandatory standard. Therefore, the Commission is not endorsing these guidelines as the sole method to minimize injuries associated with playground equipment. The Commission believes, however, that the recommendations in this handbook will contribute to greater equipment safety.

1.2 Background

These guidelines were first published in a two-volume Handbook for Public Playground Safety in 1981. These were superseded by a single-volume handbook in 1991 which was republished in 1994 with some minor revisions. The safety guidelines in the 1991 handbook were based on recommendations provided to the CPSC by COMSIS Corporation in a March 1990, report [1]*.

Falls and head injuries are the leading hazards associat-ed with public playground equipment.

This handbook contains revisions that are based in part on a staff review of recent changes to a voluntary standard for public playground equipment, ASTM F1487 that was first published in 1993 and revised in 1995 [2].

ASTM F1487 contains more technical requirements than this handbook and is primarily intended for use by equipment manufacturers, architects, designers, and any others requiring more technical information. A voluntary standard for home playground equipment, ASTM F1148 [3], contains a number of provisions that are similar to the recommendations in this handbook.

The revisions also are based on inputs from interested parties received during and after a playground safety roundtable meeting held at CPSC in October 1996, and letters received in response to a May 1997 request for comments on the proposed revisions.

Two significant changes in this revision are the criteria used to evaluate certain protrusions to minimize clothing entanglement and a reduction in the use zone (formerly fall zone) around certain pieces of playground equipment. Other changes to the 1994 version of the handbook clarify certain recommendations and reduce conflicts with the ASTM voluntary standard. Noteworthy changes are listed in Appendix E.

1.3 General Discussion

The safety of each individual piece of playground equipment as well as the layout of the entire play area should be considered when evaluating a playground for safety. The installation and maintenance of protective surfacing under and around all equipment is crucial.

Because all playgrounds present some challenge and because children can be expected to use equipment in unintended and unanticipated ways, adult supervision is recommended. The handbook provides some guidance on supervisory practices that adults should follow. Appropriate equipment design, layout, and

Handbook for Playground Safety

*Numbers in brackets indicate references that are listed at the end of this handbook.

maintenance, as discussed in this handbook, are essen-tial for increasing public playground safety.

A playground should allow children to develop progres-sively and test their skills by providing a series of gradu-ated challenges. The challenges presented should be appropriate for age-related abilities and should be ones that children can perceive and choose to undertake.

Preschool and school-age children differ dramatically, not only in physical size and ability, but also in their cognitive and social skills. Therefore, age-appropriate playground designs should accommodate these differ-ences with regard to the type, scale, and the layout of equipment. Recommendations throughout this hand-book address the different needs of preschool and school-age children; “preschool-age” refers to children 2 through 5 years, and “school-age” refers to children 5 through 12 years. The overlap between these groups is realistic in terms of playground equipment use, and provides for a margin of safety.

The recommendations in this handbook are based on the assumption that the minimum user will be a 2-year-old child. Therefore, playground equipment fabricated in accordance with these recommendations may not be appropriate for children under 2 years of age.

Playground designers, installers and operators should be aware that The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in employment, public services, transportation, public accommodations (including many services operated by private entities) and telecommunications. Title III of the legislation includes within the definition of public accom-modation: “a park, zoo, amusement park, or other place of recreation; a school, including nursery schools; a day care center; and a gymnasium, health spa, or other places of exercise or recreation.” Specific Federal requirements for accessibility to playgrounds by the disabled are expected to be published in the future.

These requirements could necessitate changes to exist-ing playgrounds as well as when new playgrounds are planned or existing playgrounds refurbished.

2. PLAYGROUND INJURIES

The U. S. Consumer Product Safety Commission has long recognized the potential hazards that exist with the use of public playground equipment. A Commission study [4] of playground equipment-related injuries treated in U.S. hospital emergency rooms indicated that the majority resulted from falls from equipment. These were primarily falls to the ground surface below the equip-ment rather than falls from one part of the equipment to another part.

Other hazard patterns involved impact by swings and other moving equipment, colliding with stationary equipment, and contact with such hazards as protru-sions, pinch points, sharp edges, hot surfaces, and playground debris. Fatal injuries reported to the Commission involved falls, entanglement of clothing or other items on equipment such as slides, entanglement in ropes tied to or caught on equipment, head entrap-ment in openings, impact from equipment tipover or structural failure, and impact by moving swings.

The recommendations in this handbook have been developed to address the hazards that resulted in these playground-related injuries and deaths. The recommen-dations include those which address the potential for falls from and impact with equipment, the need for pro-tective surfacing under and around equipment, openings with the potential for head entrapment, the scale of equipment and other design features related to user age, layout of equipment on a playground, installation and maintenance procedures, and general hazards presented by protrusions, sharp edges, and pinch points.

3. DEFINITIONS

Composite Structure — Two or more play structures, attached or directly adjacent, to create one integral unit that provides more than one play activity (e.g., combina-tion climber, slide, and horizontal ladder).

Critical Height — The fall height below which a life-threatening head injury would not be expected to occur.

Designated Play Surface — Any elevated surface for standing, walking, sitting or climbing, or a flat surface greater than 2 inches wide having an angle less than 30° from horizontal.

Embankment Slide — A slide that follows the contour of the ground and at no point is the bottom of the chute greater than 12 inches above the surrounding ground.

Entrapment — Any condition that impedes withdrawal of a body or body part that has penetrated an opening.

Footing — A means for anchoring playground equipment to the ground.

Guardrail — An enclosing device around an elevated platform that is intended to prevent inadvertent falls from the platform.

Infill — Material(s) used in a protective barrier to prevent a user from passing through the barrier e.g., vertical bars, lattice, solid panel, etc.

Loose-Fill Surfacing Material — A material used for protective surfacing in the use zone that consists of loose particles such as sand, gravel, wood fibers, or shredded rubber.

Non-Rigid Component — A component of playground equipment that significantly deforms or deflects during the normal use of the equipment.

Preschool-Age Children — Children 2 years of age through 5 years of age.

Protective Barrier — An enclosing device around an elevated platform that is intended to prevent both inadvertent and deliberate attempts to pass through the barrier.

Protective Surfacing — Surfacing material in the use zone that conforms to the recommendations in Section

4.5 of this handbook.

Roller Slide — A slide that has a chute consisting of a series of individual rollers over which the user travels.

School-Age Children — Children 5 years of age through 12 years of age.

Slide Chute — The inclined sliding surface of a slide.

Stationary play equipment — Any play structure which does not move or does not have components that move during its intended use.

Tot Swing — A swing generally appropriate for children under 4 years of age that provides support on all sides of the occupant.

Tube Slide — A slide in which the chute consists of a totally enclosed tube or tunnel.

Unitary Surfacing Material — A manufactured material used for protective surfacing in the use zone that may be rubber tiles, mats or a combination of rubber-like materials held in place by a binder that may be poured in place at the playground site and cures to form a unitary shock absorbing surface.

Upper Body Equipment — Equipment designed to support a child by the hands only (e.g., horizontal ladder, overhead swinging rings).

Use Zone — The surface under and around a piece of equipment onto which a child falling from or exiting from the equipment would be expected to land.

4. SURFACING

The surface under and around playground equipment can be a major factor in determining the injury-causing potential of a fall. A fall onto a shock absorbing surface is less likely to cause a serious injury than a fall onto a hard surface. Because head impact injuries from a fall have the potential for being life threatening, the more shock absorbing a surface can be made, the greater is the likelihood of reducing severe injuries.

However, it should be recognized that some injuries from falls will occur no matter what playground surfacing material is used.

4.1 Determining Shock Absorbency of a

Surfacing Material

No data are available to predict precisely the threshold tolerance of the human head to an impact injury.

However, biomedical researchers have established two methods that may be used to determine when such an injury may be life threatening.

One method holds that if the peak deceleration of the head during impact does not exceed 200 times the acceleration due to gravity (200 G’s), a life threatening head injury is not likely to occur. The second method holds that both the deceleration of the head during impact and the time duration over which the head decelerates to a halt are significant in assessing head impact injury. This latter method uses a mathematical formula to derive a value known as Head Injury Criteria (HIC) [5]. Head impact injuries are not believed to be life threatening if the HIC does not exceed a value of 1,000.

The most widely used test method for evaluating the shock absorbing properties of a playground surfacing material is to drop an instrumented metal headform onto a sample of the material and record the acceleration/ time pulse during the impact. Test methods are described in an ASTM Standard Specification for Impact Attenuation of Surface Systems Under and Around Playground Equipment, ASTM F1292 [6].

4.2 Critical Height

This is a term originating from Europe and is used to describe the shock absorbing performance of a surfacing material. As used in this publication, the Critical Height for a surfacing material is defined as the maximum height from which the instrumented metal headform, upon impact, yields both a peak deceleration of no more than 200 G’s and a HIC of no more than 1,000 when tested in accordance with the procedure described in ASTM F1292. Therefore, the Critical Height of a surfacing material can be considered as an approximation of the fall height below which a life-threatening head injury would not be expected to occur.

The surfacing material used under and around a particu-lar piece of playground equipment should have a Critical Height value of at least the height of the highest desig-nated play surface on the equipment. This height is the fall height for the equipment.

4.3 Fall Heights for Equipment

Recommendations for the fall heights for various pieces of playground equipment are as follows.

Climbers and Horizontal Ladders — The fall height is the maximum height of the structure.

Elevated Platforms Including Slide Platforms — The fall height is the height of the platform.

Merry-Go-Rounds — The fall height is the height above the ground of any part at the perimeter on which a child may sit or stand.

See-Saws — The fall height is the maximum height attainable by any part of the see-saw.

Spring Rockers — The fall height is the maximum height above the ground of the seat or designated play surface.

Swings — Since children may fall from a swing seat at its maximum attainable angle (assumed to be 90° from the “at rest” position), the fall height of a swing structure is the height of the pivot point where the swing’s suspend-ing elements connect to the supporting structure.

4.4 Equipment to Which Protective Surfacing

Recommendations Do Not Apply

Equipment that requires a child to be standing or sitting at ground level during play is not expected to follow the recommendations for resilient surfacing. Examples of such equipment are sand boxes, activity walls, play houses or any other equipment that has no elevated designated playing surface.

4.5 Acceptability of Various Surfacing

Materials

Hard surfacing materials, such as asphalt or concrete, are unsuitable for use under and around playground equipment of any height unless they are required as a base for a shock absorbing unitary material such as a rubber mat. Earth surfaces such as soils and hard packed dirt are also not recommended because they have poor shock absorbing properties. Similarly, grass and turf are not recommended because wear and environmental conditions can reduce their effectiveness in absorbing shock during a fall.

Acceptable playground surfacing materials are available in two basic types, unitary or loose-fill.

Unitary Materials — are generally rubber mats or a combination of rubber-like materials held in place by a binder that may be poured in place at the playground site and then cured to form a unitary shock absorbing surface. Unitary materials are available from a number of different manufacturers, many of whom have a range of materials with differing shock absorbing properties.

Persons wishing to install a unitary material as a play-ground surface should request test data from the manufacturer identifying the Critical Height of the desired material. In addition, site requirements should be obtained from the manufacturer because, as stated above, some unitary materials require installation over a hard surface while some do not.

Loose-Fill Materials — can also have acceptable shock absorbing properties when installed and maintained at a sufficient depth. These materials include, but are not confined to, sand, gravel, shredded wood products and shredded tires. Loose-fill materials should not be installed over hard surfaces such as asphalt or concrete.

Because loose-fill materials are generally sold for purposes other than playground surfacing, many vendors are unlikely to be able to provide information on the materials’ shock absorbing performance. For that reason, CPSC has conducted tests to determine the relative shock absorbing properties of some loose-fill materials commonly used as surfaces under and around play-ground equipment. Appendix D contains a description of the tested materials. The tests were conducted in accordance with the procedure in the voluntary standard for playground surfacing systems, ASTM F1292. Table 1, above, lists the critical height (expressed in feet) for each of eight materials when tested in an uncompressed state at depths of 6, 9, and 12 inches. The table also reports the critical height when a 9 inch depth of each material was tested in a compressed state.

Table 1 should be read as follows: If, for example, uncom-pressed wood chips is used at a minimum depth of 6 inches, the Critical Height is 7 feet. If 9 inches of uncom-pressed wood chips is used, the Critical height is 10 feet.

It should be noted that, for some materials, the Critical Height decreases when the material is compressed.

The Critical Heights shown in the above table may be used as a guide in selecting the type and depth of loose-fill materials that will provide the necessary safety for equipment of various heights. There may be other loose-fill materials such as bark nuggets that have shock absorbing properties equivalent to those in the above table. However, CPSC has not conducted any tests on these materials.

The depth of any loose fill material could be reduced during use resulting in different shock-absorbing

Handbook for Playground Safety

TABLE 1 — CRITICAL HEIGHTS (in feet) OF TESTED MATERIALS

MATERIAL UNCOMPRESSED DEPTH COMPRESSED DEPTH

6 inch 9 inch 12 inch 9 inch

Wood Chips* 7 10 11 10

Double Shredded Bark Mulch 6 10 11 7

Engineered Wood Fibers** 6 7 >12 6

Fine Sand 5 5 9 5

Coarse Sand 5 5 6 4

Fine Gravel 6 7 10 6

Medium Gravel 5 5 6 5

Shredded Tires*** 10-12 N/A N/A N/A

* This product was referred to as Wood Mulch in previous versions of this handbook. The term Wood Chips more accurately describes the product.

** This product was referred to as Uniform Wood Chips in previous versions of this handbook. In the playground industry, the product is more commonly known as Engineered Wood Fibers.

*** This data is from tests conducted by independent testing laboratories on a 6 inch depth of uncompressed shredded tire samples produced by four manufacturers. The tests reported critical heights which varied from 10 feet to greater than 12 feet. It is recommended that persons seeking to install shredded tires as a protective surface request test data from the supplier showing the critical height of the material when it was tested in accordance with ASTM F1292.

properties. For this reason, a margin of safety should be considered in selecting a type and depth of material for a specific use. When loose-fill materials are used, it is recommended that there be a means of containment around the perimeter of the use zone. Also, depending on playground location, weather conditions and fre-quency of use, frequent maintenance may be necessary to insure adequate depth and to loosen the materials which may have become packed (see additional maintenance discussion in Appendix C).

Installers of playground equipment are encouraged to attach markers to the equipment support posts that indicate the correct level of loose-fill protective surfacing material under and around the equipment. Such markers will assist maintenance workers in determining when replenishment of the material is necessary.

4.6 Other Characteristics of Surfacing

Materials

Selection of a surfacing material for a specific location may be governed by the environmental conditions at that location. Appendix C lists some characteristics of surfacing materials that may influence the choice for a particular playground.

5. USE ZONES FOR EQUIPMENT

The use zone is an area under and around the equip-ment where protective surfacing is required. Other than the equipment itself, the use zone should be free of obstacles that children could run into or fall on top of and thus be injured.

5.1 Recommendations for Use Zones for

Different Types of Playground Equipment

5.1.1 Stationary Equipment (excluding slides)

The use zone should extend a minimum of 6 feet in all directions from the perimeter of the equipment.

The use zones of two stationary pieces of playground equipment that are positioned adjacent to one another may overlap if the adjacent designated play surfaces of each structure are no more than 30 inches above the protective surface (i.e., they may be located a minimum distance of 6 feet apart). If adjacent designated play surfaces on either structure exceed a height of 30 inches, the minimum distance between the structures should be 9 feet.

5.1.2 Slides

The use zone in front of the access and to the sides of a slide should extend a minimum of 6 feet from the perimeter of the equipment. Note: This does not apply to embankment slides. However, the following recom-mendation applies to all slides, including embankment slides.

The use zone in front of the exit of a slide should extend a minimum distance of H + 4 feet where H is the vertical distance from the protective surface at the exit to the highest point of the chute (see Figure 1). However, no matter what the value of H is, the use zone should never be less than 6 feet but does not need to be greater than 14 feet. The use zone should be measured from a point on the slide chute where the slope is less than 5° from the horizontal. If it cannot be determined where the slope is less than 5° from the horizontal, the use zone should be measured from the end of the chute.

The use zone in front of the exit of a slide should never overlap the use zone of any other equipment.

Handbook for Playground Safety

H + 4 ft. 6 ft.

6 ft.

Min.

H

Denotes Use Zone with Protective Surfacing

6 ft.

6 ft.

6 ft.

6 ft.

Figure 1. Use Zone for Slides

5.1.3 Single-Axis Swings

Because children may deliberately attempt to exit from a single-axis swing while it is in motion, the use zone in front of and behind the swing should be greater than to the sides of such a swing. It is recommended that the use zone extend to the front and rear of a single-axis swing a minimum distance of twice the height of the pivot point above the surfacing material measured from a point directly beneath the pivot on the supporting structure (see Figure 2). The use zone to the sides of a single-axis swing should follow the general recommenda-tion and extend a minimum of 6 feet from the perimeter of the swing structure in accordance with the general recommendation for use zones. This 6 foot zone may overlap that of an adjacent swing structure.

The use zone to the front and rear of tot swings should extend a minimum distance of twice the height of the pivot point measured from a point directly beneath the pivot to the lowest point on the occupant seating surface when the swing is occupied.

The use zone to the front and rear of single-axis swings should never overlap the use zone of any other equipment.

5.1.4 Multi-Axis Swings

The use zone should extend in any direction from a point directly beneath the pivot point for a minimum distance of 6 feet + the length of the suspending members (see Figure 3). This use zone should never overlap the use zone of any other equipment. In addition, the use zone should extend a minimum of 6 feet from the perimeter of the supporting structure.

This 6 foot zone may overlap that of an adjacent swing structure or other playground equipment structure in accordance with the recommendations in Section 5.1.1.

5.1.5 Merry-Go-Rounds

The use zone should extend a minimum of 6 feet beyond the perimeter of the platform. This use zone should never overlap the use zone of any other equipment.

5.1.6 Spring Rockers

The use zone should extend a minimum of 6 feet from the “at rest” perimeter of the equipment.

Handbook for Playground Safety

Denotes Use Zone with Protective Surfacing

2H

H

2H

6 ft.

6 ft.

6 ft.

6 ft.

Figure 2. Use Zone for Single-Axis Swings

Denotes Use Zone with Protective Surfacing

L

6 ft.

L+6 ft.

6 ft.

Figure 3. Use Zone for Multi-Axis Swings

5.1.7 Composite Play Structures

The above recommendations for individual pieces of equipment should be used as a guide in establishing the use zone around the perimeter of a composite play structure. Note that in Sections 12.6.2 and 12.6.4 it is recommended that swings not be attached to a composite structure.

In playgrounds where occasional overcrowding is likely, a supplemental circulation area beyond the use zone is recommended. Whether to provide such a supplemental circulation area should be based on the professional judgement of the playground designer and/or owner/operator.

6. LAYOUT AND DESIGN OF PLAYGROUNDS

6.1 Choosing a Site

When planning a new playground, it is important to consider hazards or obstacles to children traveling to or from the playground. A barrier surrounding the play-ground is recommended if children may inadvertently run into a street. Such a barrier should not prevent observation by supervisors. If fences are used for such barriers, it is recommended that they conform to applicable local building codes.

When selecting a site, consideration should be given to slope and drainage, especially if loose-fill surfacing materials are going to be installed. While a gentle slope may aid in drainage, steep slopes could result in loose fill materials becoming washed away during periods of heavy rain. Such sites may require re-grading.

6.2 Locating Equipment

The playground should be organized into different areas to prevent injuries caused by conflicting activities and children running between activities. Active, physical activ-ities should be separate from more passive or quiet activities. Areas for play equipment, open fields, and sand boxes should be located in different sections of the playground.

In addition, popular, heavy-use pieces of equipment or activities should be dispersed to avoid crowding in any one area. The layout of equipment and activity areas should be without visual barriers so that there are clear sight lines everywhere on the playground to facilitate supervision.

Moving equipment, such as swings and merry-go-rounds, should be located toward a corner, side or edge of the play area while ensuring that the use zones around the equipment, as recommended in Section 5, are maintained. Slide exits should be located in an uncongested area of the playground. Use zones for moving equipment, such as swings and merry-go-rounds, and at slide exits should not overlap the use zone of other equipment, regardless of height.

Composite play structures have become increasingly popular on public playgrounds. Care should be taken to ensure that the play and traffic patterns of children using adjacent components on composite structures are complementary.

6.3 Age Separation of Equipment

It is recommended that for younger children, play-grounds have separate areas with appropriately sized equipment and materials to serve their developmental levels. The following items of playground equipment are not recommended for preschool-age children (2 through 5 years):

• Chain or Cable Walks

• Free Standing Arch Climbers

• Free Standing Climbing Events with Flexible

Components

• Fulcrum Seesaws

• Log Rolls

• Long Spiral Slides (more than one turn — 360°)

• Overhead Rings

• Parallel Bars

• Swinging Gates

• Track Rides

• Vertical Sliding Poles

In this handbook, there are several specific recommen-dations for equipment designed for preschool-age children. These recommendations, together with references to the sections in which they are discussed, are as follows:

• Rung Ladders, Stepladders, Stairways and Ramps (Table 2)

• Handrail Height (10.3.1)

• Guardrails and Protective Barriers (11.3, 11.4, and 11.5)

• Stepped Platforms (11.7)

• Climbers (12.1.2)

• Horizontal Ladders and Overhead Rings (12.1.5)

• Merry-Go-Rounds (12.2)

• Spring Rockers (12.5)

• Single-Axis Swings (12.6.2)

• Tot Swings (12.6.3)

The intended user group should be obvious from the design and scale of equipment. Some playgrounds, often referred to as “tot lots,” are designed only for preschool-age children, so separation is not an issue.

In playgrounds intended to serve children of all ages the layout of pathways and the landscaping of the play-ground should show the distinct areas for the different age groups. The areas should be separated at least by a buffer zone, which could be an area with shrubs or benches. Signs posted in the playground area can be used to give some guidance to adults as to the age appropriateness of the equipment.

6.4 Supervision

Playgrounds that are designed, installed and maintained in accordance with safety guidelines and standards can still present hazards to children in the absence of ade-quate supervision.

Depending on the location and nature of the playground, the supervisors may be paid professionals (full-time park or school/child care facility staff), paid seasonal workers (college or high school students), volunteers (PTA members), or the parents of the children playing in the playground. The quality of the supervision depends on the quality of the supervisor’s knowledge of safe play behavior. Therefore, supervisors should understand the basics of playground safety.

Playground supervisors should be aware that not all playground equipment is appropriate for all children who may use the playground. Supervisors should look for posted signs indicating the appropriate age of the users and direct children to equipment appropriate for their age. Supervisors may also use the information in Section 6.3 of this handbook to determine the suitability of the equipment for the children they are supervising.

It is important to recognize that preschool-age children require more attentive supervision on playgrounds than older children.

7. INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF

EQUIPMENT

7.1 Assembly and Installation

Proper assembly and installation of playground equipment are crucial for structural integrity, stability, and overall safety. The people who assemble and install playground equipment should not deviate from the manufacturer’s instructions. After assembly and before its first use, equipment should be thoroughly inspected by a person qualified to inspect playgrounds for safety.

The manufacturer’s assembly and installation instruc-tions, and all other materials collected concerning the equipment, should be kept in a permanent file.

7.1.1 Stability

When properly installed as directed by the manufactur-er’s instructions and specifications, equipment should withstand the maximum anticipated forces generated by active use which might cause it to overturn, tip, slide, or move in any way. Secure anchoring is a key factor to stable installation, and because the required footing sizes and depths may vary according to equipment type, the anchoring process should be completed in strict accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications.

7.2 Maintenance

Inadequate maintenance of equipment has resulted in injuries on playgrounds. Because the safety of play-ground equipment and its suitability for use depend on good inspection and maintenance, the manufacturer’s maintenance instructions and recommended inspection schedules should be strictly followed.

A comprehensive maintenance program should be developed for each playground. All equipment should be inspected frequently for any potential hazards, for corrosion or deterioration from rot, insects, or weather-ing. The playground area should also be checked frequently for broken glass or other dangerous debris.

Loose-fill surfacing materials should be inspected to insure they have not become displaced or compacted in high traffic areas such as under swings and at slide exits.

Any damage or hazards detected during inspections should be repaired immediately in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions for repair and replacement of parts.

For each piece of equipment, the frequency of thorough inspections will depend on the type of equipment, the amount of use, and the local climate. Based on the manufacturer’s recommendations regarding maintenance schedules for each piece of equipment, a maintenance schedule for the entire playground can be created. The detailed inspections should give special attention to moving parts and other components which can be expected to wear. Inspections should be carried out in a systematic manner by trained personnel.

One possible procedure is the use of checklists. Some manufacturers supply checklists for general or detailed inspections with their maintenance instructions. These can be used to ensure that inspections are in compliance with the manufacturer’s specifications. Inspections alone do not constitute a comprehensive maintenance program. All hazards or defects identified during inspections should be repaired promptly. All repairs and replacements of equipment parts should be completed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. A general checklist that may be used as a guide for frequent routine inspections of public play-grounds is included at Appendix A. This is intended to address only general maintenance concerns. It does not provide a complete safety evaluation of a specific equipment design and layout. For example, it does not address the risk of falls from equipment, moving impact incidents, or head entrapment. Therefore, the use of this checklist is only for general maintenance purposes. The detailed design recommendations contained in this handbook can be used to evaluate the safety of each piece of equipment and the playground as a whole.

Records of all maintenance inspections and repairs should be retained, including the manufacturer’s maintenance instructions and any checklists used. When an inspection is performed, the person performing it should sign and date whatever form is used. A record of any accident and injury reported to have occurred on the playground should also be retained. This will help identify potential hazards or dangerous design features that should be corrected.

8. MATERIALS OF MANUFACTURE AND

CONSTRUCTION

8.1 Durability and Finish

Purchasers should be sure that the equipment is manufactured and constructed only of materials that have a demonstrated record of durability in the play-ground or similar outdoor setting. Any new materials should be documented or tested accordingly for durability by the playground equipment manufacturer.

A major concern for playground equipment materials is corrosion or deterioration. Metals should be painted, galvanized, or otherwise treated to prevent rust.

All paints and other similar finishes must meet the current CPSC regulation for lead in paint [7] (0.06% [600 ppm] maximum lead by dry weight). The manufacturer should ensure that, as a result of contact with play-ground equipment, the users cannot ingest, inhale, or absorb potentially hazardous amounts of preservative chemicals or other treatments applied to the equipment.

Purchasers and installers of playground equipment should obtain documentation from the manufacturer that the preservatives or other treatments that have been used do not present a health hazard to the users.

Testing by CPSC and various state and local agencies revealed that some older playground equipment in schools, parks, and communities across the U.S. has leaded paint that over time has deteriorated. When playground equipment paint deteriorates, the resulting chips and dust may be ingested by young children who regularly touch the equipment while playing and then transfer the paint chips or dust from their hands to their mouths. The amount of paint that may be ingested can contribute to a hazardous and unnecessarily high lead exposure.

A strategy for identifying and controlling leaded paint on playground equipment is available from CPSC. A case-by-case approach is recommended since there are many factors to consider when developing a hazard assessment and plans for appropriate controls.

Playground managers should consult an October 1996 report, CPSC Staff Recommendations for Identifying and Controlling Lead Paint on Public Playground Equipment [8].

Wood should be either naturally rot and insect-resistant (e.g., cedar or redwood) or should be treated to avoid such deterioration. Chromated copper arsenate (CCA), the chemical used to make “pressure” treated wood, has been used traditionally for this purpose. However, CCA will no longer be manufactured for use in wood play-ground equipment after December, 2003. Other chemi-cals will be substituted for CCA.

The CPSC staff is aware that various groups have made suggestions concerning the application of surface coat-ing of CCA-treated wood. (e.g., stains and sealants), to reduce potential exposure to arsenic from the wood sur-face. Based on the available data, these groups have sug-gested that applying certain penetrating coatings (e.g., oil-based semi-transparent stains) on a regular basis (e.g., every 1-2 years) may reduce the migration of chemicals from the wood. However, in selecting a finish, “film-form-ing” or non-penetrating stains (latex semi-transparent, latex opaque, and oil-based opaque stains) on outdoor surfaces are not recommended as peeling and flaking may occur later, which will ultimately have an impact on durability as well as exposure to the preservatives in the wood. CPSC has not completed its assessment of the effectiveness of these measures. However, consumers with concerns may wish to consider using them.

Installers, builders, and consumers who perform woodworking operations such as sanding, sawing, or sawdust disposal on pressure treated wood should read the consumer information sheet often available at the point of sale [10]. The sheet contains important health precautions and disposal information. Creosote, penta-chlorophenol, and tributyl tin oxide are too toxic or irritating and should not be used as preservatives for playground equipment wood. Pesticide-containing finishes should also not be used.

8.2 Hardware

When installed and tightened in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions, all fasteners, connectors and covering devices should not loosen or be removable without the use of tools. Lock washers, self-locking nuts, or other locking means should be provided for all nuts and bolts to protect them from detachment. Hardware in moving joints should also be secured against unin-tentional or unauthorized loosening. In addition, all fasteners should be corrosion resistant and be selected to minimize corrosion of the materials they connect.

Bearings used in moving joints should be easy to lubricate or be self-lubricating. All hooks, including S-hooks, should be closed (see also Section 12.6.1).

A hook is considered closed if there is no gap or space greater than 0.04 inches. It is appropriate to measure this gap with a feeler gauge but, in the absence of such a gauge, the gap should not admit a dime.

8.3 Metal Surfaces

To avoid the risk of contact burn injury, bare or painted metal surfaces on platforms and slide beds should be avoided unless they can be located out of direct sun.

Alternatively, platforms may be wood, plastic or vinyl coated metal and slide beds may be plastic (see also Slides in Section 12.4.4).

9. GENERAL HAZARDS

There are a variety of general hazards common to many types of playground equipment. The guidelines in this section apply to all elements of the playground.

9.1 Sharp Points, Corners, and Edges

There should be no sharp points, corners, or edges on any components of playground equipment that could cut or puncture children’s skin. Frequent inspections are important to prevent injuries caused by sharp points, corners, or edges that could develop as a result of wear and tear on the equipment. The exposed open ends of all tubing not resting on the ground or otherwise covered should be covered by caps or plugs that cannot be removed without the use of tools.

Wood parts should be smooth and free from splinters.

All corners, metal and wood, should be rounded. All metal edges should be rolled or have rounded capping.

There should be no sharp edges on slides. Metal edges on the exit end and the sides along a slide bed can result in serious lacerations if protective measures are not taken (see also Section 12.4.5).

Handbook for Playground Safety

WARNING: Children have died when hood or neck drawstrings on their jackets or sweatshirts caught on slides or other playground equipment. Parents are advised to remove hood and neck drawstrings from clothing to prevent entanglement and strangulation.

9.2 Protrusions and Projections

Protrusions or projections on playground equipment should not be capable of entangling children’s clothing, because such entanglement can cause death by strangu-lation. Particular attention should be given to avoid

Handbook for Playground Safety

Diameter has increased

Figure 4. Protrusion Increases in Diameter From Plane of Initial Surface

3.0 in. Dia.

1.5 in. Dia.

0.50 in. Dia.

0.25 in.

1.0

in. Diameter

0.75 in.

2.0

in. Diameter

1.5 in.

3.5

in. Diameter

Figure 5. Protrusion Test Gauges protrusions or projections on slides to minimize the risk of entanglement with clothing. Jackets and sweatshirts with hoods and/or drawstrings have been involved in such entanglement/strangulation incidents. Jewelry, such as necklaces and rings, has also resulted in injuries from entanglement. The diameter of a protrusion should not increase in the direction away from the surrounding surface towards the exposed end (see Figure 4).

When tested in accordance with the procedure in Paragraph 9.2.1, no protrusion should extend beyond the face of any of the three gauges having dimensions shown in Figure 5. These gauges may be purchased from the National Recreation and Park Association

(NRPA) [12].

9.2.1 Protrusion Test Procedure

Successively place each gauge (see Figure 5) over any protrusion or projection and determine if it projects beyond the face of the gauge (see Figure 6).

9.3 Protrusions on Suspended Members of

Swing Assemblies

Because protrusions on swings can be extremely hazardous, given the potential for impact incidents, a special test gauge (see Figure 7) and procedure are recommended. No bolts or components in the potential impact region on suspended members should protrude through the hole beyond the face of the specified gauge, when tested in accordance with the following method.

Conduct the test with the suspended member in its rest position. Place the gauge over any protrusion on the front or rear surface of the suspended member such that the axis of the hole in the gauge is parallel to both the intended path of the suspended member and a horizon-tal plane. Visually determine if the protrusion penetrates through the hole and beyond the face of the gauge.

9.4 Protrusions that Project Upwards and

Protrusions on Slides

To minimize the likelihood of clothing entanglement, protrusions that fit within any one of the three gauges shown in Figure 5 and also have a major axis that projects upwards from a horizontal plane should not have projections perpendicular to the plane of the surrounding surface that are greater than 1/8 inch (see Figure 8). This recommendation also applies to protrusions on slides no matter what their orientation if the protrusions fall within the area depicted in Figure 9.

NOTE: The underside of a slide chute is not subject to the protrusion recommendation in this section but is subject to the general recommendations for protrusions in Section 9.2. For a slide chute with a circular cross section, the portion of the underside not subject to the protrusion recommendation in this section is shown in Figure 19.

Handbook for Playground Safety

Gauge

Protrusion fails

Protrusion must not Extend Beyond Face of Gauge

Figure 6. Protrusion Test

HORIZONTAL PLANE

1/8 inch maximum

Figure 8. Upwards Facing Protrusion

1 1/4 Inches Minimum

1/8 Inch Maximum

2 Inches Maximum

Note: gauge made of any rigid material

Axis; must be parallel to intended path of suspended member during test

Figure 7. Protrusion Test Gauge for Suspended Swing Assemblies

9.5 Pinch, Crush, and Shearing Points

There should be no accessible pinch, crush, or shearing points on playground equipment that could injure chil-dren or catch their clothing. Such points can be caused by components moving relative to each other or to a fixed component when the equipment moves through its anticipated use cycle. To determine if there is a possible pinch, crush or shear point, consider the likelihood of entrapping a body part and the configuration and clos-ing force of the components. Additional information on pinch, crush, and shear points is provided in the recom-mendations addressing specific pieces of equipment in Section 9.

9.6 Entrapment

9.6.1 Head Entrapment

A component or a group of components should not form openings that could trap a child’s head. A child’s head may become entrapped if the child enters an opening either feet first or head first. Head entrapment by head-first entry generally occurs when children place their heads through an opening in one orientation, turn their heads to a different orientation, then are unable to withdraw from the opening. Head entrapment by feet-first entry involves children who generally sit or lie down and slide their feet into an opening that is large enough

Handbook for Playground Safety

SLIDING SURFACE

21" R

21" R

42"

22"

TRANSITION

AREA

SHADED AREA REPRESENTS

NON-ENTANGLEMENT/PROTRUSION

ZONES

EXIT

SECTION

SIDEWALL

60"

STANDING

HEIGHT

21" R

PERPENDICULAR

SURFACE

1/8 Inch maximum

Figure 9. Area on Slides Subject to Protrusion Recommendations in Section 9.4 to permit passage of their bodies but is not large enough to permit passage of their heads.

Generally, an opening presents an entrapment hazard if the distance between any interior opposing surfaces is greater than 3.5 inches and less than 9 inches. When one dimension of an opening is within this range, all dimen-sions of the opening should be considered together to evaluate the possibility of entrapment.