TreeClimbingGuide2015.pdf

National Tree Climbing Guide

Forest 6700 Safety and Occupational Health April 2015 Service 2470 Silviculture

National Tree Climbing Guide 2015 Electronic Edition

The Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), has developed this information for the guidance of its employees, its contractors, and its cooperating Federal and State agencies, and is not responsible for the interpretation or use of this information by anyone except its own employees. The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this document is for the information and convenience of the reader, and does not constitute an endorsement by the Department of any product or service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable.

USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer. To file a complaint of discrimination, write:

USDA, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights, Office of Adjudication, 1400 Independence Ave., SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (866) 632-9992 (Toll-free Customer Service), (800) 877-8339 (Local or Federal relay), (866) 377-8642 (Relay voice users).

Table of Contents Acknowledgments

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Training

1.2 Obtaining Climbing Equipment

1.3 Terms and Definitions

Chapter 2 Preparations for Climbing

2.1 Job Hazard Analysis and Communications

2.2 Required Personal Protective Equipment

2.3 Working as a Team

2.4 Hazard Assessment

Chapter 3 Equipment

3.1 Use of Climbing Equipment

3.2 Care of Climbing Equipment

3.3 Ropes

3.4 Webbing

3.5 Safety Equipment

3.6 Carabiners and Screw Links

3.7 Helmets

3.8 Slings (Safety Straps)

3.9 Basic Equipment List

Chapter 4 Knots

4.1 Terms Used in Rope Work

4.2 Figure-8 Knots

4.3 Friction Hitches

4.4 Specialty Knots

4.5 Other Useful Knots

Chapter 5 Tree Entry Methods

5.1 Climbing Spurs

5.2 Ladders

5.3 Line Installation

5.4 Single Rope Technique (SRT)

5.5 Doubled Rope Technique (DRT)

5.6 Tree Steps

Chapter 6 Working in the Tree

6.1 Three Point Climbing

6.2 Free Climbing

6.3 Four Inch Tie-In System

6.4 Lanyard Use

6.5 Handling Materials in Trees

Chapter 7 Rappel Systems

7.1 Mechanical Rappel Devices

7.2 Friction Knots

7.3 Rigging

7.4 Rappelling

Chapter 8 Rescue

8.1 Rescue Equipment

8.2 Rescue from Sectional Ladders

8.3 Rescue from Spurs

8.4 Rescue from SRT

8.5 Rescue from DRT

8.6 Rescue from Upper Reaches of the Tree Crown/Canopy

Chapter 9 Using Chainsaws in Trees

9.1 Determining Whether a Chainsaw is Needed

9.2 Chainsaw Endorsement Categories (EC)

9.3 Prerequisites for Chainsaw Operators EC1, 2 and 3

9.4 Prerequisites for Chainsaw Operators EC4

9.5 Prerequisites for Chainsaw Instructors

9.6 Equipment

9.7 Working in the Tree with a Chainsaw

Chapter 10 Recommended Publications

Acknowledgments

There are many Forest Service employees whose work has helped us produce the National Tree

Climbing Guide. Specifically, we would like to acknowledge:

Primary Authors/Editors Early Versions Guide Authors/Editors

Jerry Berdeen Jerry Berdeen

Burnham Chamberlain Burnham Chamberlain

Teryl Grubb Tyler Groo

Art Henderson Dale Kane

Brock Mayo Chuck McDonnell

Manfred Mielke Dennis Ringnes

Kathryn Purcell Donna Stubbs

Dennis Ringnes Robert Walkowiak

Marc Roberts

Donna Stubbs Cover Photo Micah Thorning Photographer: Leo Fremonti

Climber: Mark Linnell

Other Guide Contributors

Josh Alonzo

Eric Forsman

Kevin Freeman (APHIS)

Dennis Helton

Gwen B. Hensley

Carol Morehead

Rae Watson

Wendi Weaver

Lisa Winn

The National Tree Climbing Guide is a product of the National Tree Climbing Program Technical Advisory Group (TAG), as authorized by FSH 2409.17, Chapter 50.

National Tree Climbing Program Technical Advisory Group 2015 National Program Leader ......................................................... Lisa Winn

Region 1 Coordinator .............................................................. Shelah Cox Technical Advisor .................................................. Mike Giesey

Region 3 and Rocky Mountain Research Station Coordinator ........................................................... Craig Wilcox Technical Advisor ...................................................... Chad Rice

Region 4 Coordinator .................................................................. Ian Quist Technical Advisor ......................................... Brett Bittenbender Technical Advisor .................................................Todd Franzen

Region 5 Coordinator ....................................................... Dan OHalloran Technical Advisor ................................................ Steve Murphy Technical Advisor ......................................................Rick Rataj

Pacific Southwest Research Station Coordinator ....................................................... Kathryn Purcell Technical Advisor ............................................Craig Thompson

Region 6 and Pacific Northwest Research Station Coordinator ............................................................Loretta Duke Technical Advisor ...................................................Brock Mayo Technical Advisor .................................................Daren Belsby

Region 8, Region 9 and Southern Research Station Coordinator ............................................................Dan Petersen Region 8 Technical Advisor ..............................Micah Thorning Region 8 Technical Advisor ................................ Art Henderson Region 9 & SRS Technical Advisor ........................Paul Valento

Northern Research Station Coordinator ...........................................................Marc Roberts

State and Private Forestry Northeastern Area Coordinator .......................................................Manfred Mielke

USDA APHIS

Massachusetts Coordinator ................................ Kevin Freeman New York Coordinator ........................................Mathew Roach Ohio Coordinator ...................................................Marvin Enoe

Excerpted from FSH 2409.17, Chapter 50.

51.08 - National Tree Climbing Program Technical Advisory Group

The National Tree Climbing Program Technical Advisory Group, composed of the National Tree Climbing Program Manager, the tree climbing coordinators at the regions, stations, area, and institute, and tree climbing technical advisors, performs the following:

1. Provides program recommendations to the National Tree Climbing Program Manager.

2. Provides operational and technical advice to Forest Service Tree Climbers.

3. Serves as a board of appeal on issues relating to tree climbing.

4. Recommends changes to the Forest Service Tree Climbing Program policy in section 51.03 and to the technical guidelines referenced in the National Tree Climbing Guide.

5. Establishes and/or approves tree climbing training programs through which applicants for certification can satisfy the requirements of section 51.3.

6. Establishes criteria for equipment selection, approval, and use.

7. Approves the use of new equipment, techniques, and practices.

8. Addresses national issues at annual National Tree Climbing Program workshops.

Chapter 1 Introduction

The Forest Service Tree Climbing Program provides direction that protects Forest Service employees while ascending, descending, and working aloft in trees by establishing national direction based on recognized industry standards, procedures and practices.

Climbing and working in trees demands specialized equipment and skills. The potential for a serious injury or fatal fall is always present, so employees shall be trained and certified before they engage in tree climbing operations and activities. The Forest Service Silvicultural Practices Handbook, FSH 2409.17, Chapter 50-Forest Tree Improvement, shall be followed.

Tree climbing is arduous, demanding work that requires upper body strength and overall flexibility.

Besides being physically fit, you must be able to identify and compensate for any physical or mental condition that might temporarily impact your climbing ability. Compensating may mean not climbing until the condition is no longer a problem.

Tree climbing work can be hazardous and hazardous duty pay is appropriate as outlined in the Forest Service Manual (FSH 6109.12.92b).

1.1 Training

Only Forest Service employees who hold a valid tree climbing certification card issued by the Forest Service may engage in tree climbing. All tree climbers must be trained and certified before commencing work projects and activities. Tree climbers must use only the techniques and equipment they are certified to use.

Applicants for tree climbing certification must possess an American Red Cross first aid certification or equivalent, and demonstrate the required knowledge and skills of the certification level for which they have applied. Trainees must pass a written or verbal examination that demonstrates their knowledge of at least the following:

1. Safety requirements set forth in the National Tree Climbing Guide and FSH 2409.17, Chapter 50,

2. Identifying, mitigating and/or reporting hazards associated with tree climbing work,

3. Function, care, use and maintenance of tree climbing equipment.

4. Trainees must also demonstrate their ability to safely perform the following minimum requirements after completion of the written or verbal examination:

A. Successfully tie all task specific knots, B. Demonstrate proficiency in tree climbing using the three-point climbing technique, including installation of a lanyard and limbing-over on a task specific basis, C. Perform an aerial rescue using an approved rappel system.

D. Training must be conducted by at least one certified Tree Climbing Instructor, who may certify the trainee as a Tree Climber Trainee, or Tree Climber. Applicants for Tree Climbing Instructor certification must successfully complete a basic tree climbing instructor training workshop, and meet the approval of the Evaluating Facilitator(s).

Tree climbing certification is valid until the end of the calendar year three years after issuance, unless revoked earlier.

Work supervisors should promptly withdraw a climber’s certification or remove the climber from climbing duties when the climber

1. Is physically or mentally unable to climb safely,

2. Has an unsound safety attitude, or

3. Has exhibited unsafe climbing habits.

1.2 Obtaining Climbing Equipment

Before buying any equipment, check with your Regional Tree Climbing Coordinator. Make sure equipment meets safety standards and is fit for purpose. Buy only from reputable dealers familiar with the equipment and its construction, materials, and breaking strengths. Several such dealers are on Government contract. Visit the Forest Service tree climbing website: http://www.fs.fed.us/ treeclimbing/resources/ for a list of some equipment manufacturers and distributors.

1.3 Terms and Definitions

Nomenclature associated with tree climbing and tree climbing equipment includes a number of commonly used terms. Sometimes, one term has several different meanings. To avoid confusion and possible climbing accidents, key terms are defined:

Field Guide Terms (Other Terms in Use)

Definitions

Anchor Point A secure point of attachment for a life line or lanyard strong enough to support the climber.

Ascender Any climbing device used to ascend a vertically fixed rope. The term ascender usually refers to a mechanical device.

Belay A method of protecting a climber in case of an accidental fall. A safety rope tied to a climber is paid out or taken in as the climber moves by a second person (the belayer) or by the climber in a self-belay (using the 4-inch tie-in). By controlling the safety rope, the belayer can stop the climber from falling.

Bole

(Tree Bole, Tree Stem, Tree Trunk)

The main vertical part of a tree.

Carabiner (Biners, Locking Carabiners)

An oblong metal ring with a spring loaded gate on one side used for various purposes in climbing, such as attaching equipment to the climber or securing the climber to a rappel system.

Carabiners used in life-support applications shall be self-closing and self-double-locking and shall have a gate-locking mechanism that requires at least two consecutive, deliberate actions to unlock (ANSI Z133 8.1.10) These carabiners are also known as positive locking, double auto locking, triple action, or three stage

Chest Harness Straps placed around the chest and shoulders only to secure proper positioning.

http://www.fs.fed.us/treeclimbing/resources/ http://www.fs.fed.us/treeclimbing/resources/

Field Guide Terms (Other Terms in Use)

Definitions

Chicken Loops Sewn, tied, or buckled bands of webbing or rope that fit around the ankle to prevent the ascender slings from slipping off the climber’s foot.

Climber A person certified to climb a tree; the person climbing.

Climber’s Belt (Lineman’s Belt, Body Belt, Safety Belt)

A wide padded belt usually having two large metal D-ring attachment points on the sides. A climbing belt does not have an attached chest harness or leg loops.

Climbing Harness (Safety Harness, Full Body Harness)

Tree climbing harnesses are of two general types: work positioning and fall arrest. Work positioning harnesses are generally preferred for their superior comfort and mobility.

Work positioning harnesses, also referred to as sit harnesses or saddles, offer life support to the pelvis and legs, usually with attachment points at the hips via D rings for lanyard use (positioning rings), and one or more points at the front center waist area for ascent/descent rope attachment (suspension rings).

Fall arrest harnesses similarly provide life support to pelvis and legs, with the addition of upper body life support by suspenders or attached chest harness, from which fall arrest is provided via a dorsal attachment point.

Climbing Helmet Designed specifically for climbing, this helmet has a three-point chinstrap and is designed to remain in place during a fall. It is rated for the helmet’s ability to protect against side and top impacts. A hardhat is not an acceptable substitute.

Climbing Line A rope used in tree climbing that may be used for ascending into a tree, descending from a tree, and/or working aloft in a tree.

Climbing Spurs

(Climbers, Tree Climbers, Gaffs, Pole Gaffs, Spurs, Tree Spurs, Lineman’s Climbers, Spikes)

L-shaped metal shanks that attach to the foot and lower leg and are used to ascend or descend a tree bole by means of a sharp spike (gaff) that penetrates the tree bark and sticks into the wood of the tree.

Climbing Team All team members shall be certified climbers who are qualified to perform every aspect of the climbing assignment in order to perform a rescue, if necessary.

Descent Device Any rappelling device used to descend a vertically fixed rope.

DRT (Doubled Rope Technique)

A method of tree access, movement within the tree canopy, and descent where the climber employs a doubled length of rope in a loop over an overhead tie-in point, and adjusts his position by means of a friction hitch.

(Other Terms in Use)

Definitions

Etrier (Step-Up Sling, Aider)

A webbing ladder or aid sling used to span distances of up to 6 feet where tree branches are missing. Usually constructed of flat or tubular webbing in a step fashion. Manufactured etriers are usually sewn to create the steps; however, knots may be used to create the steps from a length of webbing.

Fall Factor Divide the length of the fall by the length of the rope in the system arresting the fall. Fall factors greater than 1.0 can cause injury from the force of the sudden stop.

Foot Lock (Secure Foot Lock)

A method of safely ascending a free-hanging rope without mechanical assistance by wrapping the rope around the feet.

In a secured footlock the climber is protected from falling by a friction hitch attached to the climber’s harness.

Four-Inch Tie-In A self-belay system usually consisting of a rope, prusik loop, webbing, and carabiners. It is used as a safety line to secure the climber to the tree below the 4-inch bole diameter and at 3-foot intervals along the bole when climbing above the 4-inch diameter.

Friction Saver (Cambium Saver, Tree-crotch lanyard)

A piece of rope or webbing, preformed leather tube, or rubber coated flexible metal conduit designed specifically for rigging a rappel rope in a tree. This reduces abrasion to the lanyard, rappel rope and the tree. A doubled rope rappel can be rigged so that the rappel rope does not contact the tree bole, and the rappel rope and friction saver can be retrieved from the ground.

Haul Line (Equipment Line, Tag Line, Work Line)

A small rope or cord used for raising and lowering equipment and materials to and from the climber.

Lanyard (Safety Lanyard, Adjustable Lanyard, prusik Lanyard, Flip Line)

A short piece of rope that secures the climber to the tree. It usually consists of a rope with a mechanical grab or friction hitch used to adjust the length and a snap catch or carabiner on each end for attaching to the climber’s harness.

Rappel Rope (Main Line, Descent Rope)

A rope used to rappel or descend from a tree.

Saddle

(Sit Harness)

A type of work harness that is designed specifically to support the climber for long periods in a sitting position. A saddle differs from a safety harness by not having a chest component.

Safety Knot

(Backup Knot)

A secondary knot added to a primary knot to provide additional security. A true safety knot should ensure that the primary knot cannot untie itself. Two common safety knots are the double overhand and the double fisherman’s knot.

Safety Line (Safety Rope, Belay Rope)

A rope that is either attached to a climber and used for belaying by a ground person or is attached to a secure anchor point and adjusted by the climber (such as with the 4-inch tie-in).

(Other Terms in Use)

Definitions

Safety Strap

(Sling)

A length of rope or webbing used as a protection point in a belayed ascent by either the ground person or the climber in a self-belay (as in the 4-inch tie-in). These straps are placed around the tree bole and secured by either a knot or carabiner, then secured to the belay rope with a carabiner.

Sectional Ladder (Swedish Ladder, Tree Ladder)

A specially designed ladder for tree climbing that interlocks and individually secures to the tree. This ladder comes in 10-foot sections that can be stacked to provide a continuous ladder.

Secured A climbing system that is attached to the climber and connected to the tree that protects the climber from unintended movement.

Climbers are secured when they are tied in, using a lanyard, on belay, or when they are ascending a climbing line with the footlock technique while using a prusik loop or ascenders.

SRT (Single Rope Technique)

A method of tree access, where the climber ascends a single, statically set rope by means of ascenders.

Snap Catch (Rope Snap, Snap Link, Snap Hook)

A metal device with a ring on one end that usually attaches permanently to a rope or cable. The other end has a spring-loaded, locking gate. Unlike the gate on a carabiner, the gate on a snap link does not lock into the body of the snap link and does not offer any additional strength when closed. Snap catches shall be the self-closing, auto-locking type.

Steel-Core Lanyard (Flip Rope, Spur Rope, Cable-Core Lanyard)

A manila or synthetic rope with a steel cable core in which a snap has been spliced at one end. This rope is recommended when spur climbing and is required when cutting, trimming, or pruning in a tree.

Stopper Knot A knot tied in a rope to ensure that an object sliding along the rope will stop. Commonly used at the ends of rappel ropes to protect the climber from rappelling off the rope. The double overhand knot is recommended as a replacement for the less secure single figure eight.

Throwing Knot A knot tied in the end of a climbing line used to throw the rope into the crown of a tree.

Tree Climbing Work Any task performed in or on a tree where access is accomplished by means of free climbing, friction knots or mechanical ascenders, climbing spurs, bole gripping systems, permanently or temporarily mounted steps, or stacked sectional ladders.

Tree Steps A metal, L-shaped step that attaches to the tree with a chain or strap that is wrapped around the bole and secured to the step.

Additional terms are defined and discussed throughout the guide. Become familiar with all terms associated with tree climbing work to improve communication with fellow climbers.

Chapter 2 Preparations for Climbing

2.1 Job Hazard Analysis and Communications

Preparations shall include obtaining any special training the assignment might require, discussing with other team members the best way to accomplish the job, thoroughly rehearsing climbing methods to be used, and preparing a job hazard analysis for each assignment. The job hazard analysis shall include the following:

1. Establish a check-out and check-in procedure.

2. Analyze the assignment, and then obtain the equipment needed.

3. Inspect the equipment.

4. Establish radio contact with the local Forest/District office or central dispatch from the climbing site. If direct radio contact is not possible from the climbing site, an alternative method for summoning emergency help shall be established before climbing.

5. Assess the environment for potential hazards.

6. Assess the tree and immediate area for potential hazards.

2.2 Required Personal Protective Equipment

The following personal protective equipment is required for all climbing assignments:

1. Climbing harness.

2. Climbing helmet.

3. Long sleeved shirt and sturdy pants.

4. Eye protection.

5. Gloves are recommended, but not required for general climbing. Sturdy gloves are a must for any rappelling.

6. Logger-style boots with lug-type soles are appropriate for most tree climbing work. Soft-soled hiking boots, tennis shoes, and crepe-soled work boots may be used. When working with climbing spurs, wear boots that have suitable heels to keep the spurs in place and rigid arch supports to reduce fatigue and discomfort.

7. Hearing protection for power tool use.

2.3 Working as a Team

Two certified climbers make up the basic climbing team. One ground person can serve several climbers, but must be able to maintain visual and unassisted natural voice communication with all climbers at all times. Both members of the basic team may climb simultaneously, so long as both have quick descent capability, and remain within unassisted natural voice communication with each other. The team can also utilize additional non-climbers as ground personnel to provide support and facilitate unassisted voice communication among team climbers. All team climbers shall be qualified to perform every aspect of the climbing assignment in order to perform a rescue, if necessary. All team climbers shall have current medical training equivalent to at least an American Red Cross basic first-aid course. The team shall establish radio communications with the Forest or District office or central dispatch from the climbing site before climbing. An established sign-out system shall also be in effect with the local Forest / District office or central dispatch.

All team climbers shall be completely equipped to climb and shall thoroughly rehearse the climbing methods and techniques they will use. Working as a team includes the following:

1. Team members shall perform an equipment check on other team member’s equipment before climbing.

2. All ground personnel shall remain alert while climbers are aloft.

3. All team members should remain alert to hazards in the tree and the environment, discussing potential problems as they arise.

4. The ground person should carefully watch the climber and communicate any problems;

it is often easier for the ground person to identify hazards and recognize unsafe climbing practices than it is for the climber to do so.

5. The ground person should maintain verbal and visual contact with the climber. When the climber is collecting cones, the ground person should assist by pointing out areas where cones can be collected.

6. All climbers shall be prepared to perform a rescue or render first aid at all times.

7. The ground person shall not be directly underneath the climber at any time unless first cleared by the climber to be there. Whenever a ground person is underneath a climber, the climber remains in an “at rest” position until the ground person is no longer there.

2.4 Hazard Assessment

Any number of hazards may prevent a tree from being climbed. Hazards are generally grouped into two categories: environmental hazards and tree hazards. The following lists of potential hazards represent a starting point for the focus of a hazard tree assessment. In special situations where hazards cannot be mitigated, consider seeking additional help from specialists or receiving additional training before performing any work. The climbing team must perform both a thorough environmental and tree hazard assessment before any tree is climbed. Remember, no tree is worth a human life.

2.4.1 Environmental Hazards

The climbing team must assess the environmental hazards at each tree and monitor the weather throughout the day for changes that could make climbing more hazardous. Never climb a tree under any of the following conditions unless properly mititgated in your job hazard analysis.

1. The wind speed exceeds 25 mph or the wind is blowing in gusts. In light winds, try to keep your back to the wind. Do treetop work first, when conditions permit. If winds increase later, it may still be safe to work lower in the tree.

2. It is not fully daylight. Visibility is especially important late in the day when fatigue is a factor. Do not start a tree climb that cannot be completed in full daylight.

3. Air temperature is low enough to create an unsafe condition. Be particularly aware of cold temperatures. Cold impairs dexterity, especially in the fingers, which can jeopardize your ability to accomplish tasks safely.

4. A lightning storm is close. If you are in a tree when a lighting storm appears imminent, descend as quickly and safely as possible.

5. A powerline is close enough to the tree that you, your equipment, or the tree branches could come in contact with the powerline. Consider any tree suspect if a powerline is anywhere in the vicinity. DO NOT climb any tree that is closer than 10 feet from energized electrical conductors, unless qualified as a line clearance arborist.

2.4.2 Tree Hazards

Hazardous situations should be avoided as much as possible, unless a specific need for climbing exists. A thorough tree hazard assessment is crucial for determining the extent of the hazard and the climber’s ability to deal with it. Although trainee climbers can successfully compensate for many hazards, as the severity of the hazard increases so does the level of experience required. The type or severity of a hazard may warrant additional training, specialized equipment, or outside expertise.

When climbing, if you discover a hazard that was not spotted from the ground, or that appears to be more hazardous than you originally thought, descend immediately unless the hazard can be mitigated.

Check every tree thoroughly before the climb. Both team members shall walk around the tree and assess it for potential hazards. Many hazards can be compensated for easily, allowing the tree to be climbed safely. Other trees have severe hazards that preclude them from being climbed unless a special need exists, the climber is properly trained and equipped, and any hazards are mitigated.

Climbers should familiarize themselves with species-specific characteristics which may prove hazardous.

The following hazards may prevent a tree from being climbed, if it is not possible to compensate for them.

1. Rain-, ice-, or snow-covered branches. These branches pose slipping hazards that may affect climbing performance. Climbers may need to use a safety line or lanyard at all times for added safety.

2. Moss and lichen. Moss and lichen create a slippery climbing surface. This hazard is especially prevalent in the Northwest. Climbers may need to use a safety line or lanyard for added safety.

3. Brittle limbs caused by low temperatures. Use the same precautions you would use with any brittle limbs. If the temperature is too low to climb safely, then you should not be climbing.

4. Tree species with brittle limbs. When climbing species with brittle limbs be sure to install your climbing line or lanyard around the bole of the tree.

5. Small-diameter boles and limbs. Keep hands and feet as close to the bole as possible.

When climbing above the 4-inch diameter point in conifers, a safety line shall be used. A safety line may be used earlier in the climb for added safety.

6. Steeply sloping limbs. Always keep your hands and feet as close to the bole as possible.

Wedge them close to the bole when you are using sloping limbs for support. If your hands or feet continually slip, consider climbing with your lanyard attached at all times or use a safety line for a belayed ascent. Exercise caution on trees with branches that slope upward. To avoid getting your feet stuck, do not use them for support. If these branches cannot be avoided, consider using tree steps or using webbing slings for steps.

7. Damaged limbs. Avoid the use of damaged limbs to support your weight.

8. Branch stubs or dead branches. Never use branch stubs or dead branches for support.

Consider removal of dead branches while ascending the tree if there is a chance they might be used inadvertently while descending.

9. Abnormally large amounts of branch mortality. These conditions may indicate unsafe limbs and hidden rot. This is mainly a problem in conifers.

10. Weak branch unions. Weak branch unions are places where branches are not strongly attached to the tree. A weak union occurs when two or more branches of similar size grow so closely together that bark grows between the branches, inside the union. This is usually a problem with branches that are growing upright. The included bark weakens the branch union. The included bark may also act as a wedge and force the branch union to separate when loaded. Species such as elm and maple have a tendency to form upright branches, often producing weak branch unions. Weak branch unions also form after a tree or branch is tipped or topped (when the main stem or a large branch is cut at a right angle to the direction of growth, leaving a large branch stub). The stub inevitably decays, providing very poor support for new epicormic branches that usually develop along the cut branch. Inspect all branch unions at or below your tie-in point before choosing them to install your climbing line or lanyard.

11. Poor tree architecture. Poor architecture is a growth pattern that indicates weakness or structural imbalance. Trees with strange shapes are interesting to look at, but may be structurally defective. Poor architecture often arises after many years of damage from storms, unusual growing conditions, improper pruning, topping, and other damage. A leaning tree may or may not be a hazard. An arborist knowledgeable about that tree species should examine leaning trees that might be a hazard.

12. Forked boles and spiked top. Unless the tree species naturally forks, do not climb above a forked bole. Treat any fork with suspicion, because the fork is potentially a weak point. Never climb into a dead or spiked top. Forks sometimes indicate an old, broken top. Frequently, they are associated with wood decay, which further weakens the area, making it unsafe for climbing. Most hardwood trees fork naturally, so a forked hardwood tree would not cause as much concern as a forked conifer.

13. Cankers. A canker is a localized area on the stem or branch of a tree, where the bark is sunken or missing. Wounding or disease causes cankers. Stems are more likely to break near the canker. A tree with a canker that encompasses more than half of the tree’s circumference may be hazardous even if exposed wood appears sound.

14. Cracks. Deep splits through the bark that extend into the wood of the tree are extremely hazardous, because they indicate that the tree is failing. These trees should be evaluated by a person familiar with the species and climbed by certified climbers who are properly trained and equipped for the hazards associated with the job.

15. Decay. A decaying tree can be prone to failure. The presence of decay by itself does not indicate that the tree is hazardous. Advanced decay (wood that is soft, punky, or crumbly, or a cavity where wood is missing) can create a serious hazard. Signs of fungal activity, including mushrooms, conks, and brackets growing on root flares, stems, or branches indicate advanced decay. A tree usually decays from the inside out, eventually forming a cavity. Sound wood is added to the outside of the tree as it grows. Trees with sound outer wood shells may be relatively safe, but this depends on the ratio of sound to decayed wood and other defects that might be present. If decay is evident and you have doubts about the tree, avoid it. Arborists are best qualified to evaluate the safety of a decaying tree.

16. Root problems. Trees with root problems may fall without warning for any number of reasons, especially when the tree’s leaves grow in summer, increasing the weight the tree must support. Besides decay, roots may have a number of other problems. They may have been severed; they may have been paved over; they may have been harmed when the soil grade was raised or lowered; or a car may have driven over or parked on top of them. Mounded soil near the base of the tree, twigs that have died back, deadwood in the crown, and leaves that are off color or smaller than normal often are symptoms associated with root problems. Because most defective roots are underground and out of sight, aboveground symptoms may serve as the best warning.

17. Indications of root, butt, or bole rot. The soundness of any tree with rot cannot be trusted.

Indicators of rot include fruiting bodies of decay fungi, exposed wood that is decaying, and other indicators of internal wood decay. Wood is generally a strong material, but its strength is greatly reduced by decay. Some decay is obvious (for example, rotten wood in an exposed scar), but other decay may be hidden (for example, internal wood decay in a forked top).

18. Loose bark. Loose bark may peel off when grabbed for support or when spurs are used.

In dead conifers, large sections of bark may break loose and fall, injuring a climber or damaging equipment. Certified climbers who are properly trained and equipped for the hazards associated with the job should do critical work in such trees.

19. Dead wood. Dead trees and large, dead branches are unpredictable and may fall at any time. Dead wood is often dry and brittle and cannot bend as a living tree or branch does.

Dead branches or treetops that are already broken off (“hangers” or “widowmakers”) are especially hazardous. Certified climbers who are properly trained and equipped for the hazards associated with the job should do critical work in such trees.

20. Multiple defects. Recognizing multiple defects in a tree is critical when evaluating the tree’s potential to fail. Multiple defects that are touching or close to one another should be examined carefully. The combined potential of multiple defects can far exceed the sum of the individual hazards considered separately. If more than one defect occurs on a main stem, you should assume that the tree is potentially hazardous.

21. Large portions of other trees or snags lodged in the crown. Trees or snags lodged in the crown of another tree may move or fall, striking the climber or pinning the climber in a tree. Tree climbing to remove these hazards, or to perform critical work in the tree, should be done by certified climbers who are properly trained and equipped for the hazards associated with the job.

22. Bee, hornet, or wasp colonies. Look for insect colonies in trees to be climbed or in trees adjacent to the one to be climbed. Climbing may disturb the colony. Often colonies cannot be seen from the ground. When you are climbing, always let your ground person know when you spot a colony. A can of bee and wasp spray that will stun bees, wasps, and hornets should be carried during high-risk seasons. Climbers allergic to insect stings should have the appropriate medication with them. The climbing team’s first-aid kit should include an insect-sting kit, which may have to be purchased separately. Climbing to monitor or remove insect colonies should be performed only by certified climbers who are properly trained and equipped for the hazards associated with the job.

23. Animals in the tree. Unexpected encounters with wildlife in trees can cause enough commotion to startle a climber and create a hazardous situation. It is best to return to the tree at a later date and climb it when the animal is not present or to designate the tree as unsafe to climb without special training and precautions. Tree climbing to monitor animals, or for other animal-related activities, should be done by certified climbers who are familiar with the behavior of the animals being monitored, are properly equipped for the job, and are properly trained in the methods necessary to minimize and mitigate the associated hazards.

Chapter 3 Equipment

3.1 Use of Climbing Equipment

A variety of equipment has been developed for tree climbing work or adapted from activities such as rock climbing and caving. The climbing assignment and personal preference largely dictate the equipment selected. This chapter contains information on recommended uses, advantages and disadvantages of equipment, procedures for use, and recommendations for care.

3.2 Care of Climbing Equipment.

Continue to check the condition of your equipment frequently during the climbing assignment.

After the job, inspect the equipment, clean, and refurbish as needed so it is ready for the next assignment or for emergency use. Restrict equipment access to certified climbers only and use the equipment exclusively for tree climbing work. A locked storage area is advisable. Storage areas should be secure from rodents and chemicals—a must for rope, webbing, and harnesses.

Clearly mark or tag all defective equipment to prevent further use and repair or take it out of service. Certified climbers should be responsible for all of their own climbing equipment. Keep manufacturers’ equipment specifications and care recommendations on file for ready access.

Equipment, especially ropes, webbing, and loops, should never be walked on or driven over. This kind of abuse causes damage in ways that are not always apparent and could cause failures.

Climbing equipment, especially life-safety ropes, shall not be left unattended in a tree. The equipment needs to be closely inspected before each use, and it cannot be if it is left in the tree.

Tree sap, insects, animals, abrasion, sunlight, and rain affect climbing equipment, and equipment cannot be monitored or controlled when it is left in the tree. If a tree will be climbed more than once, a utility cord can be left in a position that allows climbing ropes to be easily put in place for future climbs.

When life-safety equipment shows significant wear, it should be taken out of service. Significant wear could be a frayed leg loop on a harness or a small crack in a gaff. Do not use any safety equipment that was involved in a significant fall. Harnesses, ropes, and any slings or webbing that helped arrest a fall can receive damage that is undetectable during inspection. The climbing components might fail the next time they are used.

Do not paint metal equipment. Paint can hide defects that can cause failure.

All equipment used for climber life support shall meet or exceed ANSI, or European PPE Directive 89/686/EEC standards for breaking strength. This requirement is consistent with search and rescue requirements for a 15:1 safety margin. Haul lines should be capable of supporting items being hauled into the tree and lowered from the tree without exceeding their working-load limits.

Equipment used in life support applications and not specifically mentioned in the National Tree Climbing Guide, or FSH 2409.17, Chapter 50, may only be used in tree climbing operations and activities when the equipment:

1. Is approved in writing, by the Regional Tree Climbing Coordinator and technical advisor(s).

2. Meets the applicable standards set forth in ANSI A10.14, Z133.1, or European PPE Directive 89/686/EEC, or by a nationally recognized testing and certification organization.

3. Is defined in the job hazard analysis.

Equipment meeting the intent of (2) above, may also be approved by the National Tree Climbing Technical Advisory Group for agency-wide application.

Ropes: Ropes used for safety lines, safety straps, lanyards, and climbing lines should have an abrasion resistance and a melting point that is equal to or greater than nylon rope and a minimum breaking strength of 5,400 pounds (24kN). Climbing lines that are UIAA approved and meet the standard for single-rope use are suitable. Smaller diameter rope of less than 5,400-pounds breaking strength may be used to construct slings and prusik loops if the finished product meets or exceeds 5,400-pounds breaking strength. However, the margin of safety will be lower because the smaller diameter rope will have less resistance to friction wear for these purposes.

Webbing: Webbing should have a breaking strength of at least 5,400 pounds. It is acceptable to use webbing with less strength if the safety strap or sling is constructed to form a finished product with at least a 5,400-pound minimum breaking strength.

Climbing Belts, Saddles and Safety Harnesses: Climbing belts, saddles and safety harnesses shall meet the requirements of ANSI A10.14, or European PPE Directive 89/686/EEC Carabiners and Screw Links: Carabiners used in life-support applications shall be of the self-closing, positive-locking type, (triple action, double auto-locking, three-stage) and along with screw links, shall have a minimum tensile strength of 5,000 pounds (22 kN). Standard one-quarter-turn, twistlock carabiners do not have a positive-locking mechanism and shall not be used in life-support applications.

Climbing Helmets: Helmets used for tree climbing shall be UIAA (Union Internationale des Associations d’Alpinisme) approved or certified as meeting ANSI Standard Z89.1. These helmets have been tested for side impact and puncture resistance, shock absorption, and the ability to remain on the head during impact. The most desirable of these helmets have an adjustable suspension system and shock-absorbing foam padding. Climbing helmets should be inspected on a regular basis for hairline cracks by flexing. Refer to manufacturer’s recommendation on when to retire a climbing helmet.

3.3 Ropes

The working characteristics of a rope depend on the materials used to construct it and the construction method. Not all ropes are suitable for tree climbing work. When selecting rope, consider these points:

1. How will the rope be used— haul line, climbing line, rappel line, lanyards, or 4-inch tie-in?

2. What rope properties are required for the intended use— static, dynamic, or semi-static/ dynamic?

3. What type of material is best for the intended use— nylon, Kevlar, manila, polyester, or polyolefin?

4. What type of construction is best for the intended use— laid, kernmantle, or braided?

Because most tree climbing ropes are used for life support, it is critical that you be thoroughly familiar with all aspects of the rope from the time it is purchased until it is retired from service. Maintain a rope log documenting use. If you are not personally familiar with the history of the rope you are going to rely on, do not use it. Purchase ropes only from reputable dealers knowledgeable about materials, construction, and breaking strengths. Never purchase used ropes.

3.3.1 Characteristics of Rope

Consider the following when selecting a rope for tree climbing work:

Elasticity. This refers to how much a rope can stretch before it reaches its breaking strength. The elongation is measured as the percentage of increase in the rope length under a given load. The amount of elongation at the breaking strength determines whether a rope is considered static or dynamic.

A. A static rope has less than 20-percent elongation at the breaking strength and less than 2 percent elongation at a working load of 500 pounds. As a rule, these ropes are stiffer than dynamic ropes, which can make knot tying more difficult. Generally, static ropes are more resistant to abrasion and dirt penetration. Principal uses for static ropes include haul lines, lanyards, safety straps or slings, SRT ropes, and rappel ropes. Never use static ropes in situations where a fall could occur, such as with the 4-inch tie-in system, or as a safety line for a belayed ascent.

B. A dynamic rope has an elongation of 40 to 60 percent at the breaking strength and less than 10 percent elongation at a working load of 176 pounds. A dynamic rope absorbs the shock of a fall, giving the climber added protection. Principal uses for dynamic ropes include safety lines and 4-inch tie-in systems. Because of their versatility, dynamic ropes are suitable for lanyards and rappelling. They are NOT recommended for haul lines, SRT, and DRT because of their tendency to stretch.

C. Semi-static/dynamic ropes fall into the elasticity range between fully static and fully dynamic. Ropes designed for use in DRT climbing systems are commonly in this elasticity range, i.e. from 3 to 4 percent elongation at working loads of 500 pounds.

Abrasion resistance. Stiffer ropes generally resist abrasion better than more flexible ropes. All ropes may be abraded from within by dirt particles rubbing against the fibers or from the outside by contact with rough or sharp surfaces.

Tensile strength. Tensile strength is the resistance of a rope to a force tending to tear it apart.

Tensile strength is determined by steadily applying an increasing load on a rope until it breaks.

Breaking strength. Breaking strength refers to the value at which a rope breaks when subjected to a sudden force from a known weight over a specified distance.

Resistance to sunlight. All synthetic and natural fiber ropes will deteriorate with continued exposure to sunlight. Ultraviolet degradation of synthetic rope and webbing is the most significant factor affecting the aging of rope, especially when the cordage is in storage longer than in actual use (assuming it has not been damaged). Rope made from Kevlar is especially sensitive to ultraviolet degradation and should be stored according to manufacturer’s instructions. It is impossible to assess the strength of a rope or webbing that has been stored for long periods in direct sunlight.

The cordage may be unsafe to use long before it shows any signs of wear. Rope condition can be assessed by visual and tactile inspection when it has been protected from damage and stored in a cool, dark place.

Heat resistance. Heat resistance is the ability of a rope to withstand overheating and melting due to normal or rapid (6 feet per second or more) rappelling or other friction caused by a rope rubbing against or over a surface. When heated, a rope will soften. Softening always permanently weakens the rope and may result in rope failure.

Water absorption. The more water repellent a rope the better. A rope that is wet is usually not as strong as when it is dry. A rope’s abrasion resistance and tensile strength may be reduced when it is wet.

Chemical resistance. Chemicals such as bleach, acids, oils, spirits, lacquer, battery acid (including any residual acid that may be found on jumper cables), petroleum products, and lacquer thinner can damage ropes. Vapors these chemicals give off may also do damage. Avoid contamination with any of these chemicals. Ropes constructed of nylon or polyester have good resistance to petroleum products, but are susceptible to acids of all types.

Aging. Ropes have a finite service life, even if they are not used. A rope’s strength decreases over time.

3.3.2 Types of Rope Materials

The type of material a rope is made of determines how it can be used in tree climbing applications.

Types of rope material include:

1. Manila. Manila is a natural fiber that is treated with oily compounds when manufactured into rope. These oily compounds are lost as the rope ages, reducing its strength over time.

Never use a plain manila rope for life-supporting lines or other important uses. Quality control is difficult because natural fibers tend to rot and degrade. Degradation occurs not only during use, but also in storage and often is not evident on inspection. Manila rope is not as strong as nylon rope of the same diameter, and breaking strengths may vary widely depending on the manufacturer. Water absorption is high compared to synthetic fibers.

Manila ropes are only suitable for utility purposes, except when combined with steel cable such as steel-core rope lanyards that are acceptable for life-safety use. Manila ropes are considered static ropes.

2. Polyolefin. Ropes of polypropylene and polyethylene melt at 310 °F, but may begin to soften and weaken at 100 °F. These temperatures can be easily reached or exceeded when the ropes are subjected to abrasion and friction. Use ropes made exclusively of these materials only for haul lines or other uses that do not include life support.

3. Nylon. Nylon is a durable, strong, synthetic fiber with widely varying physical properties.

Of the many types of nylon yarn manufactured, the two most common in rope construction are nylon 6, also known as Perlon, and nylon 6,6. Nylon 6,6 has a slightly higher melting point (500 °F) than nylon 6 (419 °F) and also a higher breaking strength; these differences, however, are not always apparent because other factors, such as rope design, contribute to the overall properties of a rope. Nylon ropes have a high breaking strength relative to their size and a high abrasion resistance when dry. Untreated, they readily absorb water, which reduces their tensile strength by up to 10 percent. Nylon ropes that have a minimum breaking strength of 5,400 pounds are suitable for climbing when they are new. Ropes of nylon may be either static or dynamic, depending on their construction.

4. Polyester. Dacron® and Terylene® are trade names for polyester…